FIG.   I.— A  Virgin  Forest  in  Idaho. 


THE  PRINCIPLES 

OF 

HANDLING  WOODLANDS 


BY 

HENRY  SOLON  GRAVES 

•  \ 

FORESTER,  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


FIRST  EDITION 
FOURTH    THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS 

LONDON:   CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED 

1914 


COPYRIGHT,  1911, 
By  HENRY  SOLON  GRAVES 


/y^ 


PKINTINC.    COMPANY,    NEW    YORK,    U.  S.  A. 


To  My  Father 


O 


PREFACE 

DURING  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  rapid  ex- 
tension of  the  \vork  of  practical  forestry  in  the  United 
States.  The  Federal  government  has  set  aside  as  Na- 
tional Forests  about  190  million  acres,  on  which  to-day 
all  work  is  conducted  under  the  principles  of  forestry. 
A  number  of  States  also  have  established  reservations 
which  have  been  placed  under  systematic  forest  admin- 
istration. Forestry  is  being  practised  on  a  considerable 
number  of  private  tracts,  and  there  are  many  owners 
who  are  seeking  information  regarding  forestry  with  a 
view  of  practising  it  if  found  to  be  commercially  practi- 
cable. 

The  literature  treating  of  forestry  as  applied  in  this 
country  is  still  very  meager.  Much  of  it  is  fragmentary 
and  scattered  in  various  Government  and  State  publica- 
tions, and  the  information  most  desired  by  an  owner  or  a 
forester  is  often  not  available.  There  is  a  great  need  of 
systematic  works  covering  the  different  branches  of  for- 
estry, for  the  use  of  owners  of  woodlands,  for  practising 
foresters,  and  students  in  the  forest  schools.  As  a  con- 
tribution to  this  greatly  needed  literature  of  forestry,  I 
have  prepared  the  present  volume  covering  the  silvicul- 
tural  treatment  of  woodlands. 


VI  PREFACE 

The  book  deals  primarily  with  the  principles  of  cut- 
ting mature  stands  of  timber  with  a  view  to  their  replace- 
ment by  new  growth;  cuttings  in  immature  stands  made 
for  their  improvement;  and  forest  protection,  with  par- 
ticular reference  to  forest  fires.  The  book  is  not  intended 
as  a  complete  treatise  on  silviculture,  but  deals  only  with 
the  treatment  of  woodlands.  The  methods  of  artificial 
seeding  and  planting  are  not  included  at  all.  This  is  an 
extensive  subject  in  itself  and  is  left  to  be  handled  by 
another  author. 

I  have  endeavored  to  present  the  subject  primarily 
from  the  standpoint  of  conditions  as  they  obtain  to-day. 
The  book  is  designed  to  serve  a  present  purpose.  In 
most  parts  of  the  country  the  methods  of  forestry  first 
used  are  necessarily  primitive  in  their  application.  We 
are  using  to-day  methods  in  vogue  in  Europe  many  years 
ago,  when  market  conditions  were  similar  to  those  now 
common  in  this  country.  With  the  increasing  value  of 
timber  and  larger  returns  from  forestry,  better  and  more 
intensive  methods  will  be  used.  In  the  long  run  the  ap- 
plication of  forestry  in  this  country  will  resemble  very 
closely  that  in  Europe,  with  such  modifications  as  are  re- 
quired by  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  our  species  and 
our  climate.  I  have  laid  special  emphasis  on  some  of 
the  more  primitive  methods  of  forestry  because  these  are 
often  the  only  methods  which  can  be  applied  under  con- 
ditions of  poor  markets  and  difficult  logging.  Thus  a 
prominent  place  is  given  to  the  selection  system  in  its 
first  application  to  virgin  forests;  some  of  the  clear-cut- 


PREFACE  Vll 

ting  systems,  which  will  necessarily  later  be  replaced  by 
better  methods,  are  described  in  considerable  detail;  and 
more  space  is  given  to  the  primitive  application  of  the 
shelterwood  system  than  to  its  fully  developed  practise 
in  Europe.  A  number  of  the  European  modifications 
of  the  various  silvicultural  systems  have  not  been  men- 
tioned at  all,  as  they  would  have  at  present  only  a  very 
limited  application  in  this  country. 

So  far  as  possible  I  have  endeavored  to  use  such  tech- 
nical terms  as  have  been  already  established.  The  ter- 
minology has  been  made  to  conform  in  most  instances  to 
that  given  by  Mr.  O.  W.  Price  in  Bulletin  No.  61,  U.  S. 
Forest  Service.  There  has,  however,  been  some  devia- 
tion from  that  list,  and  several  new  terms  have  been  used 
where  those  in  common  usage  seemed  inadequate. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  Forest  Service  for  the  majority 
of  photographs  used  in  the  book. 

HENRY  SOLON  GRAVES. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I. — INTRODUCTION        .  1 

The  American  forest    .          .                    ...  1 

The  march  of  forest  destruction    ....  2 

Damage  by  fire       ......  3 

Damage  by  insects          .....  3 

Reduction  of  supplies     .....  3 

Unregulated  cutting        .....  5 

Disturbance  of  stream  flow      .          .          ...  5 

Definition  of  forestry 6 

Definition  of  silviculture 7 

Objects  of  silviculture            .....  8 

Quick  reproduction         .....  8 

Desirable  species  ......  9 

A  full  stand 10 

A  valuable  product 10 

Rapid  growth         ......  12 

Measure  of  production           .                    ...  12 

Purpose  of  the  owner    .                               ...  15 

Objects  of  public  forests                    .          .  15 

Objects  of  private  forests        ....  18 

The  cost  of  silviculture          .....  18 

Financial  returns  from  forestry       ...  19 

Returns  from  public  forests     ...  20 

Problem  of  private  owners       ....  20 

Profits  of  planting            .....  21 

Investments  in  immature  forests      ...  22 
ix 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Investments  in  natural  reproduction          .          .        24 

Progress  of  private  forestry     .  25 

Reproduction  cuttings  ...  27 

Classification  of  the  trees  in  a  forest       .  ,27 

Age-class       .  .  .28 

Size-class       ......  28 

Crown-class  .  .  28 

The  stand      .  .  .30 

Origin  of  stands    .  .          .          .  30 

Form  of  the  stand  .  .30 

The  silvicultural  systems  .          .  ,32 

Classification  of  silvicultural  systems       .          .          ,35 
Systems  depending  on  reproduction  by  seed     .          .        35 
Systems  depending  on  reproduction  wholly  or  partly 
from  sprouts  (coppice)       .....        38 

Combination  of  silvicultural  systems       ...        38 
Application  of  silvicultural  systems         .          .  39 

Choice  of  species  ......        40 

Pure  and  mixed  stands  contrasted  .  .          .42 

CHAPTER  II. — THE  SELECTION  SYSTEM         ,         .         .41- 

Origin  of  the  selection  system        ....  44 

Theory  of  the  selection  system       ....  45 

Principles  of  limiting  the  cut         ....  48 

The  diameter  limit       .....  53 

Application  of  a  diameter  limit     ...  56 

Marking        ...                   ...  57 

Defects  of  a  rigid  diameter  limit  ....  60 

Provision  for  reproduction     .  62 

Protection  from  windfall        .  64 

Cutting  small  trees  for  improvement      .          .  64 

Influence  of  market  conditions       .  65 


CONTEXTS  XI 

PAGE 

Cost  of  the  system         ......  67 

Increased  cost  of  logging         .  67 

Cost  of  protecting  young  growth     ...  68 

Increased  cost  of  construction  work          .          .  68 

Value  of  seed-trees         .  69 

Cost  of  improvement  work     ....  69 

Intensive  development  of  the  selection  system          .  69 

Results  of  the  selection  system       ....  71 

Choice  of  the  selection  system       ....  72 

Example  in  the  spruce  forests  of  the  Northeast        .  74 

CHAPTER  III. — SYSTEMS  OF  CLEAR-CUTTING        .         .  83 

Definition  of  clear-cutting     ....  83 

Conditions  requiring  clear-cutting           ...  83 

Disadvantages  of  a  clear-cutting     ....  86 

Methods  of  reproduction        .....  87 

Advantages  of  artificial  reproduction        .          .  88 

Advantages  of  natural  reproduction           .          .  88 

Clear-cutting  with  artificial  reproduction        .          .  89 

Use  of  the  system  in  this  country    ...  90 

Use  in  National  forests            ....  90 
Use  in  State  forests         ...                    .93 

Use  in  private  forests     .....  95 

Clear-cutting  the  whole  stand          .                     .  96 

Clear-cutting  in  strips    .  97 
Clear-cutting  in  patches          .                              .97 

Clear-cutting  with  natural  reproduction           .          .  98 
Conditions  of  success     ...                    .98 

Influence  of  market  conditions                    .          .  100 

Clear-cutting  the  whole  stand                               .  101 

Reserving  blocks  of  trees         .                              .  103 

Reserving  scattered  seed-trees  107 


XI 1  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Reserving  groups  of  seed-trees         .          .          .  116 

Reserving  thrifty  standards      ....  118 

Clear-cutting  in  two  or  more  operations.          .  121 

Alternate  cleared  strips  .....  123 

Irregular  cleared  strips    .....  128 

Progressive  cleared  strips         ....  132 

Use  in  this  country         .....  134 

Clear-cutting  in  patches          ....  135 

CHAPTER  IV. — THE  SHELTERWOOD  SYSTEM          .         .137 

Underlying  principles  of  the  sheltervvood  system     .  137 

Advantages  of  the  system         .          .          .          .137 

Disadvantages  of  the  system   ....  140 

Variation  in  application           ....  140 

Primitive  application  of  the  system          .          .          .  141 

Application  in  the  longleaf  pine  forests           .          .  142 

The  first  or  seed-cutting          ....  144 

The  second  cutting         .....  145 

Results .         .146 

Application  in  the  Black  Hills       ....  147 

The  first  cutting    ....          .         .  149 

The  second  cutting         .          .          .                    .  150 

Progress    in    the   development   of    the    shelterwood 

system       .......          .  150 

Intensive  application  of  the  shelterwood  system       .  152 

Shelterwood  system  with  uniform  cuttings       .          .  153 

The  preparatory  cuttings          ....  153 

The  seed-cutting  ......  156 

The  removal  cuttings     .....  161 

Shelterwood  cuttings  in  strips         ....  162 

Shelterwood  cuttings  in  groups       ....  164 

The  two-storied  system          .....  166 


CONTENTS  XI 11 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  V. — THE  COPPICE  SYSTEMS.         .         .         .  170 

Simple  coppice  .......  170 

Age  of  cutting 172 

Season  of  cutting  ......  173 

Care  in  cutting  ......  173 

The  cutting 174 

Maintenance  of  density  ....  174 

Arrangement  of  cutting  ....  175 

Holding  over  reserves    .          .          .          .  .177 

Pole-wood  coppice        ......  178 

Use  in  the  hardwood  region  of  the  East  .          .  179 

The  reproduction  cuttings       ....  181 

The  second  cutting 184 

Coppice  with  standards           .....  184 

CHAPTER  VI. — IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FOREST     .         .  189 

Improvement  cuttings  ......  189 

Cleanings 190 

Liberation  cuttings        ......  194 

Thinnings    ........  196 

Need  of  thinnings 198 

Results  of  thinnings        .....  200 

Theory  of  thinnings        .....  201 

Principles  governing  the  severity  of  thinnings  .  202 

Time  of  first  thinning    .....  204 

Repetition  of  thinnings .          ....  208 

Application  in  Europe    ...                    .  208 

The  PVench  method        .          .          .          .          .  210 

Practical    application     cf     thinnings     in    this 

country      .......  212 

Accretion  cuttings         ......  216 

Improvement  work  in  irregular  stands     .          .          .  219 


XIV  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Improvement  work  in  selection  forests  .          .  220 

Damage  cuttings  .          .  '        .          .          .  221 

Pruning        ......  223 

CHAPTER  VII. — PROTECTION  OF  FORESTS  FROM  FIRE    .  225 

Character  of  forest  fires          .         .                             .  226 

Surface  fires 226 

Inflammable  material    ....  .227 

Topography          ......  229 

Character  of  the  soil     ......  230 

Condition  of  the  atmosphere          ....  230 

Rapidity  of  surface  fires         .          .          .  230 

Grass  fires    ......  231 

Brush  fires  .          . m  231 

Ground  fires .  232 

Crown  fires            ......  233 

Damage  by  fires    .....                   .  235 

Death  of  standing  trees .          .          .  235 

Injury  to  trees        .....  238 

Injury  to  the  soil   ....                    .  240 

Reduction  of  density      .  241 

Influence  on  reproduction        ....  242 

The  prevention  of  fires           ...                    ,  244 

Elimination  of  the  causes  of  fires     .          .          .  245 

Organization  of  the  forest       .          .                    .  246 

Disposal  of  slash    .                              ...  247 

Disposal  of  brush  and  debris  .          .                    .  249 

Piling  and  burning  brush  as  logging  proceeds  249 

Piling  and  burning  brush  in  separate  operations  251 

Lopping  the  tops                       .  260 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Broadcast  burning            .....  262 

Annual  or  periodic  burning  of  litter         .  265 

Fire-lines       ......  267 

Roads  .  ...  .268 

Trails  ...  .270 

Special  fire-lines  271 

Location  of  fire-lines      .                    ...  281 

Artificial  fire  obstructions        ....  284 

Supervision  and  patrol    .....  284 

Aids  to  supervision  and  patrol          .          .          .  285 

Supervision  of  small  tracts       ....  290 

Supervision  of  large  tracts        ....  291 

Patrol  along  railroads      .....  294 

The  methods  of  fighting  fires          ....  297 

Quick  access  to  fires      .....  297 

An  adequate  force  of  fighters  ....  297 

Proper  equipment  for  fighting  fires            .          .  299 

Organization  of  the  fighting  crew  .          .          .  300 

Methods  of  fighting  surface  fires      .          .          .  301 

Methods  of  fighting  ground  fires      .          .          .  305 

Methods  of  fighting  crown  fires       .          .          .  305 

Back-firing .306 

Patrol  after  a  fire  is  extinguished    .          .          .  308 

CHAPTER  VIII. — PROTECTION  FROM  OTHER  INJURIOUS 

AGENCIES         .                           309 

Protection  from  Insects 309 

Death  of  trees 310 

Injury  to  trees        .          .          .          .          .          .312 

Injury  to  reproduction    .....  314 

Control  of  insects            .....  314 

Protection  from  fungous  diseases    ....  318 

Protection  against  other  agencies  ....  319 

INDEX  321 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  A  Virgin  Forest  in  Idaho Frontispiece 

2.  In  the  California  Redwoods 4 

3.  The  Devastating  Effect  of  a  Forest  Fire  in  Minne- 

sota        11 

4.  A  Forest  Destroyed  by  Fire  in  the  Cascade  Moun- 

tains of  Washington 16 

5.  A  Virgin  Forest  of  Douglas  Fir,  Cedar,  and  Hem- 

lock in  Oregon 23 

6.  A  Forest  of  American  White  Pine  in  Germany 26 

7.  Natural  Arrangement  of  Crown  Classes  in  an  Even- 

aged  Stand 29 

8.  A  Selection  Stand.     Spruce  in  the  Mountains  of  Aus- 

tria         33 

9.  An  Even-aged  Stand.      Mature  Beech  in  Germany..      33 

10.  Profile    of    an    Ideal    Selection    Stand    Before    First 

Cutting 46 

11.  Profile   of  an   Ideal   Selection   Stand   Twenty  Years 

after  Cutting 46 

12.  Trees   Designated  for   Cutting  under   the   Selection 

System.    Engelmann  Spruce,  Arapahoe  National 
Forest,  Colorado 51 

13.  After  a  Selection  Cutting.      Logs  not  yet  Removed 

or  Slash  Disposed  of.      Missoula  National  For- 
est, Montana 55 

14.  Marking  Axe 58 

15.  A  Stand  of  Engelmann  Spruce  after  a  Selection  Cut- 

ting.    Arapahoe  National  Forest,  Colorado.  ...      66 
xvii 


XV111  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

16.  A  Group  of   Balsam  Firs  Marked  for   Cutting  in  a 

Selection  Forest.  Their  Removal  will  Favor 
the  More  Valuable  Spruce.  Arapahoe  National 
Forest,  Colorado 66 

17.  Trees   Designated   for  Cutting   under  the  Selection 

System.     Arapahoe  National  Forest,  Colorado..     73 

18.  A  Stand  in  the  Adirondacks  in  which  there  has  been 

a  Selection  Cutting 76 

19.  A  Stand  of  Douglas  Fir  and  Cedar  of  Great  Size  and 

Age.  A  System  of  Clear-Cutting  is  Required. 
Washington 84 

20.  A  Heavy  Douglas  Fir  Stand   in  \Yashington,  Calling 

for  One  of  the  Systems  of  Clear-Cutting 91 

21.  A  Dense  Stand  of  Tall  Lodgepole  Pines,  Calling  for 

some  System  of  Clear-Cutting  on  Account  of  the 
Danger  from  Windfall 99 

22.  Application  of  a  System  of  Clear-Cutting  with  Large 

Blocks  of  Timber  Reserved  for  Seed.  A  Quar- 
ter Section  in  the  Kaniksu  National  Forest, 
Idaho 105 

23.  Thrifty  Standards  Reserved  to  Grow  through  a  Sec- 

ond Rotation.     Scotch  Pine  in  Europe 109 

24.  Reserving  Scattered  Trees  to  Distribute  Seed   after 

Lumbering.     Minnesota  National  Forest 109 

25.  Groups  of  Trees  left  to  Distribute  Seed  over  Clear- 

ings. Lodgepole  Pine.  Deer  Lodge  National 
Forest,  Montana 117 

26.  A   Stand   of  Western   Yellow   Pine,   with   Scattered 

Old  Trees,  Showing  the  Results  which  May 
be  Obtained  by  Reserving  the  Thrifty  Standards 
for  Growth  through  a  Second  Rotation.  Black 
Hills,  South  Dakota 122 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

FIG.  PAGE 

27.  Clear  Cutting  as  Applied  in  a  Scotch  Pine  Forest  in 

Germany.  The  Clearing  will  be  Restocked  by 
Planting 130 

28.  Clear-Cutting  in  Strips  as  Applied  in  Lodgepole  Pine. 

Deer  Lodge  National  Forest,  Montana 130 

29.  Cutting  Series 133 

30.  Reproduction  of  a  Stand  by  the  Shelterwood  System. 

The  Sheltering  Trees  will  be  Removed  in  the 
Next  Ten  Years,  Black  Forest,  Germany 139 

31.  Primitive   Application   of   the   Shelterwood    System, 

after  the  First  Cutting.  Lodgepole  Pine.  Big 
Horn  National  Forest,  Wyoming 139 

32.  After    a    Cutting    under    the    Shelterwood    System. 

Western  Yellow  Pine.      South  Dakota 148 

33.  Just  Before  the  Removal  of  the  Last  Trees  under  the 

Shelterwood  System.  Young  Growth  has  been 
Secured  over  the  Whole  Area.  Austria 160 

34.  After  the    First  Work   in  an   Open   Irregular  Stand. 

The  Cuttings  Followed  the  Principles  of  the 
Shelterwood  System.  Western  Yellow  Pine. 
Black  Hills  National  Forest,  South  Dakota.  .  .  .  160 

35.  The   First   Cutting   in  an   Irregular   Open  Stand   of 

Western  Yellow  Pine.  In  Places  it  is  Neces- 
sary to  AJake  Small  Clearings;  Elsewhere  the 
Shelterwood  System  is  Followed 167 

36.  Simple  Coppice  on  a  very  Short  Rotation,  Illustrated 

by  Willow  Culture 171 

37.  Distribution  of  Annual   Cutting  Areas   in  a    Forest 

Managed  under  the  Simple  Coppice  System  on 
a  Rotation  of  Twenty  Years.  A  Communal 
Forest  in  Northern  Germany 176 


XX  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

38.  A  Stand  of  Hardwoods,  Composed  of  Trees  of  Sprout 

and  Seedling  Origin,  after  the  First  Cutting  un- 
der the  Polewood  Coppice  System.  Southern 
New  York 180 

39.  Coppice  with  Standards.      Germany 185 

40.  Another  Example  of  Coppice  with  Standards.      Ger- 

many      185 

41.  Inferior  Trees  which  Should  be  Removed  from  over 

a  Stand  of  Young  Trees.  A  Liberation  Cut- 
ting    192 

42.  A  Spreading  Tree  which  Should  be  Cut  for  the  Bene- 

fit of  the  Younger  Surrounding  Trees.  A  Lib- 
eration Cutting 192 

43.  A  Stand  of  Loblolly  Pine  after  a  Thinning.      Mary- 

land     197 

.44.   A   Stand   of  White   Pine    after   a  Thinning.      New 

Hampshire 205 

45.  A  Stand  of   Hardwoods  after  a  Thinning.      Massa- 

chusetts     213 

46.  A   Thinning   in   Progress  in  a  Shortleaf  Pine  Stand. 

Biltmore,  North  Carolina 222 

47.  Example  of  a    Damage-Cutting.       Trees    Removed 

Because  Infected  by  Insects.  Black  Hills  Na- 
tional Forest,  South  Dakota 222 

48.  A  Fire  Burning  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 228 

49.  A   Surface    Fire   in  a   Longleaf   Pine    Forest    in   the 

South 228 

50.  Brush  Piled  and  Ready  for  Burning.      Missoula  Na- 

tional Forest,  Montana 248 

51.  Good  Work   in   Piling   Brush.      Coconino   National 

Forest,  Arizona ,  254 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XXI 

FIG.  PAGE 

52.  A   Favorable    Condition   for    Burning    Piled    Brush. 

Missoula  National  Forest,  Montana 259 

53.  A  Spruce  Top  Improperly  Lopped 263 

54.  The  Same  Spruce  Top  Properly  Lopped 263 

55.  A  Well-Developed  System  of  Roads  and  Trails,  Used 

for  Transportation  and  Fire  Protection.      Black 
Forest,  Germany 269 

56.  A  Plowed  Furrow  that  Stopped  a  Surface  Fire 274 

57.  A  Fully  Cleared  Fire-Line  in  the  San  Gabriel  Moun- 

tains, California 274 

58.  A   Fire-Line   in    the   Chaparral.      Angeles   National 

Forest,  California 279 

59.  A  Mountain  Trail   Built  for  Fire  Patrol.     Angeles 

National  Forest,  California 283 

60.  Location  of  Fire-Lines  in  the  Angeles  National  For- 

est, California 283 

61.  A  Lookout  Station.     Cabinet  National  Forest,  Mon- 

tana    287 

62.  A  Watch  Tower   in  the  Tusayan   National   Forest, 

Arizona 295 

63.  Fighting  a  Ground  Fire  by  Trenching 304 


THE    PRINCIPLES  ; 
HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

The  American  Forest 

AT  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  of  America  the 
forests  were  unexcelled  anywhere  in  the  world.  They 
stretched  practically  unbroken  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
half  across  the  continent  to  about  the  ninetieth  meridian. 
They  covered  a  large  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  a  broad  strip  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  aggregate 
these  forests  comprised  about  850,000,000  acres. 

The  original  forests  of  this  country  were  remarkable 
not  only  for  their  vast  extent,  but  also  for  the  great  num- 
ber of  valuable  species  composing  them.  The  richness 
of  our  forest  flora  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  coun- 
try includes  several  climatic  zones,  in  part  also  to  the  fact 
that  the  climate  and  physiography  have  favored  the  devel- 
opment and  continuance  of  tree  life. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  original  forests  in  this 
country  was  the  enormous  yield  in  valuable  material. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  comprised  within  the 
temperate  zone,  whose  climate  favors  rapid  growth  and 


2  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

large  : development  of  frees.  The  original  forest  con- 
tained trees  of  grfeat  age  and  enormous  size.  Nature, 
w&i'Jtikg  ^through  centuries,  had  provided  a  vast  store- 
house of  timber,  fully  grown  and  ready  for  use  when 
required.  It  is  on  this  supply  that  the  American  people 
have  been  drawing  for  four  centuries.  It  has  constituted 
a  source  of  great  wealth,  and  has  been  an  important 
element  in  the  internal  development  of  the  country  and 
in  the  extension  of  its  commerce. 

The  March  of  Forest  Destruction 

When  the  country  was  first  settled,  the  effort  was  to 
clear  the  land  for  agriculture.  With  the  increase  of  pop- 
ulation there  naturally  arose  a  demand  for  forest  products, 
and  the  timber  was  cut  for  use,  and  not  merely  destroyed. 
The  first  lumbering  for  use  took  only  the  choicest  trees 
in  the  forest.  Timber  was  so  plentiful  that  the  ordinary 
grades  had  no  value.  The  selection  of  a  tree  here  and 
there  had  little  effect  on  the  forest.  In  fact,  the  cutting 
was  beneficial,  for  it  removed  the  mature  trees,  and  the 
openings  which  were  made  induced  new  growth,  and 
thereby  increased  the  increment  of  the  forest.  As  the 
demand  for  timber  increased  for  export  and  for  local  con- 
sumption, and  the  supply  of  the  best  grades  became  more 
remote,  the  forests  near  the  settlements  were  cut  over  a 
second  time;  and  this  process  went  on  until  the  modern 
systems  of  lumbering  were  introduced,  which  make  very 
heavy  inroads  into  the  forests,  in  some  cases  removing 
practical Iv  every  tree. 


INTRODUCTION  J 

Damage  by  Fire. — It  was  soon  after  lumbering  for  use 
began  that  forest  fires  became  a  common  occurrence,  and 
these  increased  in  number  and  severity,  burning  over  the 
majority  of  lumbered  lands,  and  usually  at  the  same  time 
enormous  areas  which  had  not  been  cut,  and  destroying 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  timber.  It  is  estimated  that 
since  1870  an  average  of  50,000,000  acres  has  been 
burned  and  a  damage  of  fully  $5 0,000, 000  done  each 
year,  aside  from  the  injury  to  young  trees  and  to  repro- 
duction. 

Damage  by  Insects. — The  American  forests  have 
suffered,  further,  incalculable  injury  by  insects.  In  some 
instances  whole  forests  have  been  killed  by  bark-beetles. 
Sometimes  the  damage  attributed  to  fire  has  been  in  the 
first  instance  due  to  beetles;  and  the  dead  trees  and 
debris  were  later  consumed,  or  practically  consumed,  by 
fire.  In  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and  Wyoming 
there  has  been  a  damage  from  beetles  of  $2,500,000 
within  a  decade. 

Reduction  of  Supplies. — Taking  together  the  vari- 
ous causes  of  destruction  of  forests,  such  inroads  have 
been  made  into  our  resources  that  a  conservative  esti- 
mate shows  that  the  bulk  of  our  virgin  supplies  will  be 
exhausted  in  less  than  a  generation.  The  supply  of 
forest  products  will  then  come  entirely  from  what  is 
now  classed  as  second  growth. 

Heretofore,  the  only  idea  in  the  minds  of  the  Ameri- 
can people  has  been  to  utilize  the  great  store  of  timber 
which  they  found  already  at  hand.  The  Government  and 


4  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


*"     ' 


FIG.  2. — In  the  California  Redwoods. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

States  disposed  of  their  lands  as  rapidly  as  possible  to 
private  owners  and  for  private  exploitation.  Private 
owners,  in  handling  their  forest  lands,  had  no  other  idea 
than  to  cut  the  accumulated  stock  without  any  regard 
whatever  for  future  growth.  While  a  few  far-sighted 
lumbermen  in  Maine,  and  in  some  other  sections, 
began  30  or  40  years  ago  to  restrict  their  cuttings  to  the 
oldest  timber,  and  to  reserve  the  intermediate  and  young 
growth,  and  wrhile  a  few  individuals  planted  trees  and 
otherwise  practised  forestry  in  a  small  way,  it  is  only 
within  a  decade  that  there  has  been  any  wide-spread 
conception  of  the  management  of  timberlands  on  a  large 
scale  with  a  view  to  perpetuating  the  forest. 

Unregulated  Cutting. — Ordinary  lumbering,  even 
when  not  accompanied  by  fire,  results  in  a  steady  deteri- 
oration of  the  forest.  The  best  individuals  are  taken 
out  and  the  crooked  and  defective  trees,  which  the  lum- 
bermen do  not  want,  are  left.  In  mixed  forests,  the  poorer 
species  are  usually  left,  and  these  seed  up  the  ground. 
The  soil  is  often  exposed,  trees  are  blown  over,  and  at 
best  the  production  is  very  much  lowered.  So  great  has 
been  the  damage  to  our  forests  that  the  annual  growth 
upon  them  is  less  than  one-third  of  what  is  actually  used 
by  the  country.  To  meet  the  future  demands  of  the 
country,  with  the  ever-increasing  population,  waste  and 
destruction  must  be  stopped  and  the  productive  growth 
of  the  forests  increased  from  300  to  400  per  cent. 

Disturbance  of  Stream  Flow. — One  of  the  most  seri- 
ous effects  of  destructive  lumbering,  followed  by  fires, 


6  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

has  been  the  disturbance  of  stream  flow  and  the  erosion  of 
the  soil.  Forest  destruction  has  already  caused  a  damage 
of  many  millions  of  dollars,  by  silting  up  navigable  rivers 
and  reservoirs,  by  causing  an  increase  of  spring  floods 
and  a  deficiency  of  water  in  the  summer,  by  deposits  of 
rocks,  gravel,  and  sand  on  agricultural  land,  by  the 
drying  up  of  the  sources  of  water  used  for  irrigation 
and  for  domestic  purposes,  etc.  This  damage  in  the 
aggregate  is  so  large  as  to  constitute  one  of  the  principal 
causes  of  the  present  demand  for  forestry. 

If  the  United  States  is  to  have  an  adequate  supply  of 
timber  in  the  future,  and  if  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers 
are  to  be  properly  protected,  the  practise  of  forestry  is 
required  not  only  on  the  public  forests,  but  also  on  lands 
now  in  the  hands  of  private  owners. 

Definition  of  Forestry 

The  underlying  idea  of  forestry  is  continuity  of  use. 
Forestry  aims  to  utilize  the  present  product  of  the  forest 
with  the  greatest  possible  economy,  and  with  profit  to  the 
owner,  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  for  the  continu- 
ance of  the  forest,  and  for  the  production  of  timber  and 
other  forest  products  in  the  future. 

Heretofore,  lumbering  has  been  the  exploitation  of  a 
ripe  crop  of  timber,  with  no  intentional  provision  for  the 
future  use  of  the  land  for  forest  growth.  The  forester 
regards  a  forest  as  a  property  capable  of  yielding  repeated 
crops  of  timber.  When  a  merchantable  crop  is  cut,  the 
forester  aims  to  replace  it  by  a  new  growth,  to  protect  the 


INTRODUCTION  / 

young,  middle-aged,  and  merchantable  trees,  which  by 
the  old  methods  would  often  be  destroyed,  and  to  secure 
from  the  forest  the  highest  possible  yield  in  the  long  run. 
The  highest  possibkutilization  of  the  present  product 
requires  only  the  application  of  ordinary  modern  business 
principles.  Forest  production  requires  of  the  manager 
not  only  practical  business  capacity  but  also  knowledge 
of  the  life  and  characteristics  of  the  trees  and  forests,  and 
the  methods  of  carrying  out  the  objects  of  forestry  in  a 
practical  way.  The  forester,  therefore,  must  be  a  man 
trained  and  experienced  both  in  modern  lumbering  and 
also  in  the  art  of  forest  production,  which,  in  technical 
language,  is  called  silviculture. 

Definition  of  Silviculture 

Silviculture  is  the  art  of  establishing,  developing, 
and  reproducing  forests.  It  comprises: 

1.  The  establishment   of   forest   stands,    by   natural 
reproduction  or  by  artificial  seeding  or  planting. 

2.  The  improvement  of  woodlands,  including  thin- 
nings for  the  betterment  of  their  composition  and  the 
enhancement  of   the  quality  and  growth   of   the   trees, 
pruning,  and  all  other  work  .of  improvement. 

The  protection  of  woodlands  from  fire,  insects,  and 
other  damage  is  not  always  dealt  with  in  books  on  silvi- 
culture. The  need  of  protection  is  so  urgent  in  this 
country,  however,  and  the  successful  handling  of  wood- 
lands depends  so  much  on  securing  their  safety,  that  the 
subject  is  given  a  place  in  this  volume. 


8  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

Objects  of  Silviculture 

The  ultimate  goal  of  all  silvicultural  work  is  to  secure 
on  a  given  area  a  high  production  of  valuable  material, 
in  order  that  the  owner  may  secure  the  largest  possible  re- 
turns in  the  long  run.  More  specifically  the  objects  are: 

1.  To  secure  quick  reproduction  after  the  removal  of 
timber. 

2.  To  produce  valuable  species  instead  of  those  hav- 
ing little  or  no  market  value. 

3.  To  secure  a  full   stock,  in  contrast  to  stands  of 
small  yield. 

4.  To  produce  trees  of  good  form  and  quality. 

5.  To  accomplish  the  most  rapid  growth  compatible 
with  a  full  stand  and  good  quality. 

Quick  Reproduction. — When  forests  are  abused  by 
unregulated  cutting  and  by  fire,  reproduction  is  very 
slow,  and  sometimes,  when  the  abuse  continues,  entirely 
prevented.  Thus,  for  example,  areas  in  Pennsylvania 
cleared  by  lumbering  and  repeated  fires,  are  in  many  cases 
entirely  covered  with  low  brush  and  weeds,  and  years 
will  be  required  for  natural  reproduction  to  take  place. 
The  great  plains  in  the  Lake  States,  which  have  been 
devastated  by  fire,  are  capable  of  producing  as  good  tim- 
ber as  formerly,  but  the  trees  needed  for  seed  have  been 
destroyed.  It  will  require  a  long  period,  amounting  in 
some  cases  to  many  tree  generations,  for  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  forest  by  natural  means.  There  are,  in  this 
countrv.  millions  of  acres  of  devastated  forest  land,  on 


INTRODUCTION  7 

which  it  will  be  impossible  to  establish  a  stand  by  natural 
reproduction  in  less  than  a  century.  This  represents  the 
worst  conditions  of  forest  destruction.  But  even  where 
fire  has  not  played  so  important  a  part,  but  where  lum- 
bering has  been  conducted  in  the  usual  way,  reproduction 
is  generally  slow  and  meager.  This  means  loss  of  growth. 
To  the  owner  it  means  that  the  soil  is  idle  for  a  long 
time,  and  that  the  period  between  removing  the  timber 
and  the  maturing  of  the  new  crop  is  much  longer 
than  is  necessary.  To  the  country  at  large  it  means  a 
great  loss  which,  in  the  aggregate  for  a  single  State,  may 
amount  to  millions  of  dollars  each  year. 

Desirable  Species. — Nature  does  not  discriminate 
against  the  inferior  species.  In  the  struggle  for  existence 
between  two  species,  the  one  which  has  the  least  market 
value  often  wins.  In  any  forest  left  to  nature  a  great 
deal  of  ground  is  occupied  by  trees  which  do  not  have  as 
high  technical  value  as  some  others.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  a  country  like  America,  where  the  number  of 
species  is  large.  Thus,  in  southern  New  England  the 
ground  is  often  occupied  by  birch,  soft  maple,  ironwood, 
or  other  species  of  relatively  little  value,  where  chestnut 
and  oak  might  be  growing.  Lumbering  and  fire  are  often 
followed  by  a  deterioration  of  the  soil  and  a  growth  of 
species  inferior  to  those  in  the  original  stand.  The  pur- 
pose of  silviculture  is  to  improve  the  composition  of  the 
forest,  so  that  a  given  area  will  be  occupied  by  the  most 
valuable  species  which  are  capable  of  growing  under  the 
given  conditions. 


10  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

A  Full  Stand. — There  are  relatively  few  forests  in 
America  which  are  producing  a  maximum  amount  of 
timber.  Thus,  it  is  estimated  that  the  second-growth 
woodlands  of  Connecticut  do  not  yield  much  over  60 
per  cent  of  what  is  possible  under  good  methods  of 
forestry.  This  refers  merely  to  the  actual  quantitative 
production,  without  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  product. 
The  production  from  the  standpoint  of  value  is  probably 
less  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  possible.  The  reason  for  this 
small  production  is  the  fact  that  the  stands  are  very  irreg- 
ular. Frequently  the  trees  are  straggling  and  spreading, 
and  occupy  a  great  deal  of  space  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
trees,  and  there  are  many  openings  occupied  by  valueless 
shrubs  or  entirely  bare,  which  might  be  growing  trees. 
The  loss  to  the  country  through  this  reduced  productive 
power  of  the  forests  is  very  great.  In  Connecticut  alone 
it  probably  amounts  to  at  least  $400,000  per  annum. 
The  purpose  of  silviculture  is  not  only  to  produce  the 
trees  best  adapted  to  the  soil,  but  as  many  trees  per  acre 
as  is  compatible  with  good  quality. 

A  Valuable  Product. — In  the  American  forests  a 
large  number  of  the  trees  are  crooked  or  forked,  or  have 
low  branches  which  destroy  their  otherwise  high  techni- 
cal value.  Frequently  these  trees  are  suitable  only  for 
fire-wood,  though  they  are  large  enough,  and  of  the  right 
species,  to  furnish  high-priced  timber.  Thus,  frequently 
one  sees  a  stand  of  oak,  75  years  old,  with  trees  of  such 
poor  form  that  the  timber  is  worth  only  1  cent  per  cubic 
foot,  whereas  within  this  period  it  would  have  been 


INTRODUCTION 


11 


12  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

possible  to  produce  a  stand  worth  3  cents  per  cubic 
foot.  One  purpose  of  silviculture  is,  therefore,  to  pro- 
duce trees  of  high  technical  value. 

Rapid  Growth. — It  is  a  proved  fact  that  the  growth 
in  a  natural  forest  is  very  much  lower  than  in  a  cultivated 
forest.  In  the  fierce  struggle  for  existence  trees  are,  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  retarded  in  growth,  and  those  which 
live  and  come  to  maturity  have  usually  grown  relatively 
slowly.  In  the  Adirondacks,  for  example,  it  requires  on 
an  average  180  years  for  a  spruce  to  reach  a  diameter  of 
12  inches.  Under  favorable  conditions,  it  is  possible  for 
spruce  to  reach  12  inches  in  from  80  to  100  years.  One 
object  of  silviculture  is  to  give  each  tree  which  is  likely 
to  come  to  maturity  the  requisite  amount  of  light  and 
growing  space,  in  order  that  it  may  grow  at  its  maximum 
rate.  Trees  standing  in  the  open  grow  more  rapidly  than 
those  in  the  forest,  but  this  rapid  growth  is  obtained  at  a 
sacrifice  of  form  and  quality  of  wood.  A  certain  amount 
of  crowding  is  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  natural 
pruning  and  good  form  of  trunk.  The  forester  has, 
therefore,  to  sacrifice  increment  in  a  certain  measure  to 
form  and  quality,  but  by  judicious  silviculture  he  can 
secure  the  maximum  rate  of  growth  that  is  compatible 
with  the  production  of  valuable  material. 

Measure  of  Production 

There  is  for  every  type  of  forest  a  maximum  of  pro- 
duction. By  the  expenditure  of  enough  labor,  it  is  pos- 
sible in  time  to  bring  a  forest  to  this  high  condition  of 


INTRODUCTION  13 

productiveness.  All  open  lands  may  be  planted  with 
good  species  of  trees;  ruined  stands  may  be  cleared  and 
restocked  artificially  or  naturally;  stands  containing  weed- 
trees,  or  overcrowded,  may  be  thinned  and  their  compo- 
sition and  growth  improved.  The  measures  necessary 
to  secure  the  maximum  production  may,  however,  involve 
a  very  large  investment,  and  one  which  might  not  yield 
an  interest  return  at  all  satisfactory  to  the  owner.  While 
the  forester  aims  to  secure  a  continued  high  production, 
he  does  not  handle  his  forest  with  this  alone  in  view,  re- 
gardless of  business  considerations.  His  design  is  to 
make  the  forest  serve  the  highest  possible  use  to  the 
owner  as  a  piece  of  productive  property.  If  any  land 
is  more  valuable  for  agriculture  or  other  purposes  than 
for  producing  trees,  it  is  put  to  its  best  use.  If  it  is  best 
suited  to  forest  growth,  the  aim  is  to  secure  from  it  re- 
peated crops  of  timber.  Investments  are  made  in  forestry 
when  it  can  be  shown  that  there  \vill  be  adequate  returns 
in  money  or  in  some  other  desired  form.  It  is  a  rule  of 
silviculture  that  no  investments  are  made  unless  there 
will  be  such  returns.  Under  our  present  conditions  it  is 
usually  not  possible  to  secure  the  maximum  productive- 
ness of  the  forest  and  at  the  same  time  meet  the  financial 
requirements  of  the  investment. 

How  much,  then,  must  one  produce  from  a  forest  in 
order  to  practise  legitimate  forestry?  In  other  words, 
what  is  the  minimum  of  forest  production  which  may  be 
established  as  the  dividing  line  between  forestry  and 
destructive  lumbering?  The  simplest  principle  is  that 


14  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

those  areas  which  are  to  be  held  permanently  for  forest 
use  should  be  managed  in  such  a  way  that  the  production 
by  yearly  growth  will  not  be  progressively  reduced,  but 
will  at  least  be  maintained.  If  by  failure  to  provide  for 
replacement,  or  through  destructive  fires,  the  productive- 
ness of  the  forest  is  constantly  decreasing,  there  will  ulti- 
mately be  little  or  no  forest  at  all;  and  that  is  exactly  what 
is  happening  in  many  places  under  the  present  methods. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  provision  for  new  growth 
and  a  conservative  handling  of  growing  timber,  so  that 
the  growth  equals  that  which  produced  the  present  stand, 
the  forest's  productiveness  is  not  decreasing,  even  if  it 
does  not  approximate  what  might  be  secured  by  a  larger 
outlay  of  money. 

This  measure  of  production  is  a  very  easy  matter  to 
determine  if  it  is  based  on  the  mean  annual  growth  of  .the 
forest.  If,  for  example,  the  first  forest  is  200  years  old 
and  yields  10,000  board  feet  to  the  acre,  the  annual 
growth  is  50  board  feet.  In  this  case,  if  the  forest  is 
handled  so  that  the  mean  annual  growth  of  the  next 
crop  will  be  50  feet,  it  falls  within  what  may  be  called 
the  dividing  line  between  forestry,  or  a  system  of  main- 
taining forest  production,  and  exploitation,  in  which 
there  would  be  a  constant  lowering  of  the  yield.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  on  account  of  the  small  yield  of 
the  virgin  forest  compared  with  what  might  be  produced 
under  forestry,  such  a  return  is  exceedingly  low.  Any 
system  that  does  not  produce  at  least  100  feet  per  acre 
per  annum  is  decidedly  poor  forestry.  But  between  this 


INTRODUCTION  1 5 

minimum  rate  of  growth  and  the  possible  maximum 
growth  lies  the  range  of  timber  production  under  legiti- 
mate forestry.  Just  what  point  will  be  reached  within 
that  range  depends  entirely  on  the  object  of  the  owner 
in  handling  his  forest.  The  application  of  forestry  to 
secure  a  high  production,  involving  as  it  does  a  consid- 
erable outlay  of  labor,  is  called  intensive  forestry. 

Purpose  of  the  Owner 

The  management  of  a  forest  depends  on  what  returns 
are  sought  by  the  owner.  The  object  of  management 
varies  widely  among  different  owners,  and  there  is  a  cor- 
responding variation  in  the  application  of  forestry.  The 
first  consideration  in  organizing  a  forest  is  the  purpose 
of  management.  Every  investment  is  made  to  secure 
some  definite  return  desired  by  the  owner. 

Objects  of  Public  Forests. — In  the  case  of  public  for- 
ests the  financial  returns,  measured  in  actual  interest  on 
the  invested  capital,  are  ordinarily  not  the  first  considera- 
tion. National  forests  and  State  forests  are  set  aside,  to 
be  managed  for  the  permanent  benefit  of  the  public.  In 
some  cases  these  forests  serve  primarily  to  protect  the 
slopes  of  mountains,  to  conserve  moisture,  and  to  control 
the  run-off  of  water.  The  accomplishment  of  this  object 
must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  returns  from  the  forest. 
In  case  of  some  National  Forests  located  in  high  moun- 
tains at  the  headwaters  of  important  streams,  the  cost  of 
administration  and  protection  will  exceed  the  returns 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  sale  of  timber  and  from 


16  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


INTRODUCTION  17 

other  sources.  Public  interest  demands  the  protection  of 
these  forests,  and  this  itself  is  an  ample  return  on  the 
investment  necessary  in  forestry. 

Some  public  forests  serve  as  great  recreation  and 
health  resorts.  Thus  the  State  forests  in  the  Adirondack 
Mountains  of  New  York  are  held  primarily  for  these 
purposes,  as  well  as  for  their  value  in  protecting  the 
headwaters  of  rivers.  The  constitution  of  the  State  pre- 
vents any  cutting  of  timber  whatever,  and  hence  there 
are  no  returns  in  money  at  all.  The  public  desires  the 
forest  to  remain,  at  least  at  present,  untouched.  Large 
sums  are  spent  each  year  for  administration,  protection, 
and  improvement,  and  the  indirect  value  to  the  public  is 
regarded  as  a  satisfactory  return.  In  this  particular  case 
it  would  be  possible  to  make  the  forests  more  than  self- 
supporting  by  judicious  cuttings,  and  at  the  same  time 
meet  all  the  protective  and  esthetic  purposes  of  manage- 
ment. Without  doubt,  such  a  policy  of  treatment  will  be 
introduced  on  these  forests  in  a  few  years. 

One  of  the  greatest  purposes  of  public  forests  is  the 
continuous  production  of  wood  and  timber  for  use.  The 
object  of  management  is  not  only  the  production  of  as 
large  a  quantity  as  possible,  but  also  of  the  grades  needed 
by  the  people  dependent  on  the  forests  for  their  supplies. 
Oftentimes  the  public  owner  will  aim  to  produce  in  its 
forests  trees  of  large  size  and  high  quality,  in  order  to 
secure  grades  of  timber  which  private  forests  are  not  likely 
in  the  future  to  yield.  The  best  grades  of  lumber  can  be 
obtained  only  from  very  old  trees.  Most  private  owners 


18  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

will  cut  their  trees  as  soon  as  merchantable.  The  cost 
of  producing  very  old  trees  is  high  because  of  the  interest 
accumulating  during  a  long  period  of  years  on  the  initial 
investment,  and  the  annual  expense  of  taxes,  protection, 
and  administration.  The  interest  returns  will  be  corre- 
spondingly lower  than  when  there  is  a  short  rotation.1 
The  public  owner  alone  can  afford  to  produce  timber  of 
this  character.  The  return  will  be  in  part  the  public 
advantage  of  having  a  certain  amount  of  high-grade  tim- 
ber on  the  market. 

Objects  of  Private  Forests. — Private  forests  are,  for 
the  most  part,  managed  for  profit.  On  some  large  private 
estates  of  wealthy  individuals  and  clubs,  held  as  hunting 
and  fishing  preserves  or  pleasure  parks,  the  questions 
of  timber  production  and  money  returns  are  secondary. 
The  protective  principle  enters  strongly  into  the  policy 
of  the  management  by  water  companies  of  the  forests 
about  their  reservoirs.  Farmers  frequently  aim  to  pro- 
duce timber  of  a  certain  class  for  local  use.  The  essential 
object  of  most  private  owners  in  forestry  is  financial. 
Forestry  with  them  is  strictly  a  business  problem. 

The  Cost  of  Silviculture 

The  objects  of  silviculture  cannot  be  secured  without 
cost.  There  is  always  required  an  outlay  in  some  form 
or  other,  an  investment  made  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
greater  returns  in  the  long  run.  Sometimes  the  invest- 
ment is  in  the  form  of  actual  expense  for  planting,  protec- 

1  By  rotation  is  meant  the  age  at  which  it  is  planned  to  cut  the  mature  trees. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

tion  from  fire,  inspection  and  supervision,  or  marking  of 
trees;  or  it  may  be  represented  by  increased  cost  of  log- 
ging, and,  hence,  reduced  profits  of  present  cuttings;  or 
it  may  be  in  the  retention  of  seed  trees  and  small  timber 
left  for  growth,  which  might  be  utilized  now;  or  per- 
haps, in  the  case  of  a  farmer  doing  his  own  cutting,  in 
the  extra  trouble  necessitated  by  the  application  of  far- 
sighted,  intelligent  methods  of  treatment  in  his  woodlot, 
as  opposed  to  the  thoughtless,  haphazard  methods  usually 
employed.  It  is  difficult  to  give  any  general  average 
figures  of  cost  of  silviculture,  because  different  measures 
are  used  under  different  conditions,  and  the  cost  of  any 
given  measure  varies  widely.  In  the  discussion  of  the 
different  methods  of  silviculture,  the  cost  of  the  various 
operations  is  discussed.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  extra  cost  of  operating  in  the  lumber  woods  by  for- 
estry methods,  compared  to  the  ordinary  methods,  is 
from  2$  cents  to  $1  per  thousand  board  feet;  that  the 
cost  of  reproduction  varies  from  $2  to  $10  per  acre;  and 
the  annual  cost  of  protection,  supervision,  and  adminis- 
tration varies  from  2  to  1 0  cents  per  acre. 

If  a  large  lumber  company  were  to  practise  forestry, 
the  cost  expressed  in  terms  of  the  annual  cut  would  be 
about  from  50  cents  to  $1  per  thousand^^  -  -  J^"  ? 

Financial  Returns  from  Forestry 

It  is  obvious  that  the  practise  of  forestry  in  public 
forests  is  of  great  value.  The  indirect  protective  influ- 
ences of  the  forest,  the  continued  supply  of  a  certain 


20  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF   HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

amount  of  useful  products,  the  maintenance  of  certain 
industries  which  could  not  otherwise  continue  to  exist  in 
a  given  region,  are  all  of  great  advantage  to  the  people, 
and  contribute  largely  to  the  actual  creation  of  wealth 
and  prosperity.  They  justify  public  forestry  even  if 
they  involve  a  continued  outlay  of  money. 

Returns  from  Public  Forests. — As  a  matter  of  fact, 
public  forests  pay  financially  in  the  long  run,  in  addition 
to  furnishing  many  indirect  advantages.  The  forests  of 
Prussia  yield  a  net  revenue  of  over  $  16, 000, 000  a  year, 
or  about  $2.50  per  acre.  The  forests  of  Saxony  yield 
more  than  $5  per  acre  per  annum  above  all  expenses  of 
protection,  administration,  and  operation. 

Public  forests  in  this  country  will  also  pay  financially 
in  the  long  run.  In  some  cases  the  forests  have  been  so 
badly  damaged  by  destructive  lumbering  that  there  will 
be  no  revenue  from  them  for  a  long  time.  Thus  Penn- 
sylvania purchases  cut-over  forests.  No  timber  can  be 
cut  on  many  of  them  for  a  long  time.  But  ultimately 
there  will  be  a  large  financial  return  to  the  State.  A 
typical  public  forest  in  Europe  yields  about  2^  Per 
cent,  per  annum  compound  interest  on  the  value  of  the 
investment. 

Problem  of  Private  Owners. — The  question  asked  by 
many  private  owners  of  forests  is  whether  it  will  pay 
them  from  a  business  standpoint  to  practise  forestry. 
Thus,  for  example,  a  lumber  company  owning  100,000 
acres,  has  the  problem  of  whether  it  shall  cut  everything 
from  the  tract  that  can  be  sold,  or  cut  only  the  mature 


INTRODUCTION  2 1 

timber  and  handle  the  forest  with  a  view  to  repeated 
crops. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  forestry  will  be  a  profitable  in- 
vestment for  all  private  owners.  There  are  a  great  many 
cases  where  the  returns  will  not  be  satisfactory,  compared 
to  other  investments.  The  reason  why  forestry  fre- 
quently is  not  an  attractive  investment  is  on  account 
of  the  danger  from  forest  fires  and  burdensome  taxation. 
Where  a  forest  can  be  successfully  protected  from  fire  at 
reasonable  cost,  and  where  the  annual  taxes  are  not 
excessive,  forestry  will  certainly  pay,  and  in  many  cases 
yield  a  return  fully  equal  to  that  which  could  be  ob- 
tained in  other  lines  of  business. 

Profits  of  Planting. — The  question  of  the  possible 
profit  from  forestry  is  usually  based  on  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing timber  from  the  seed.  The  value  of  the  land,  the 
cost  of  establishing  the  stand  of  trees,  the  annual  expense's 
of  taxes,  protection,  and  administration  are  considered, 
the  interest  on  all  is  compounded,  and  the  aggregate 
costs  are  compared  with  the  .possible  returns  from  the 
sale  of  the  timber.  When  the  land  is  cheap,  the 
taxes  are  reasonable,  the  risk  of  damage  by  fire  is  not 
great,  and  the  market  is  certain,  a  sure  profit  can  be 
shown.  Thus,  in  Newr  England  forest  planting  has 
yielded  over  6  per  cent.,  and  in  the  Prairie  States,  where 
small  trees  are  valuable,  an  even  higher  return  has  been 
secured. 

Under  the  present  conditions  confronting  many 
timberland  owners,  forest  planting  is  not  an  attractive 


22  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

investment,  because  of  the  risks  from  fire,  possible  bur- 
densome taxes,  and  uncertainty  of  markets. 

Investments  in  Immature  Forests. — On  the  other 
hand,  forests  in  such  a  condition  that  there  are  not  only 
merchantable  trees  but  younger  trees  which  will  reach 
merchantable  size  in  a  reasonable  period,  offer  a  splendid 
opportunity  for  profitable  forestry.  During  the  few  years 
required  for  the  young  growth  to  reach  merchantable  size, 
there  will  be  a  very  rapid  increase  in  value.  Thus,  for 
example,  a  purchaser  may  in  some  sections  secure  second- 
growth  chestnut  and  oak  at  $5  per  acre;  in  otner  words, 
to  obtain  land  well  stocked  with  second  growth  up  to  75 
years  old  for  the  same  amount  as  it  would  cost  to  buy  a 
denuded  land  and  plant  a  new  crop,  or  even  less. 

A  lumber  company  which  has  purchased  a  tract  on 
the  basis  of  the  value  of  its  mature  timber,  frequently 
acquires  an  enormous  supply  of  young  trees,  for  which  it 
really  pays  nothing.  The  operation  of  the  forest  so  as  to 
protect  and  bring  these  to  maturity  will  result  in  produ- 
cing timber  at  exceedingly  low  cost,  and  with  consequent 
high  profits. 

Those  large  producers  who  will  require  stumpage 
after  the  present  abundant  supply  is  depleted  will  find 
it  very  profitable  to  grow  their  own  timber,  purchasing 
young  forests  already  well  stocked  and  partly  grown  while 
these  are  relatively  cheap.  The  virgin  timber  in  the  East 
will  be  largely  cut  in  25  or  30  years.  The  timber  cut 
after  that  time  will  be  that  which  is  now  called  second 
growth.  For  example,  after  the  old  southern  pine  is  cut, 


INTRODUCTION 


23 


FIG.  5. — A  Virgin  Forest  of  Douglas  Fir,  Cedar,  and  Hemlock  in  Oregon. 


24  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  lumbermen  will  use  the  stands  which  are  now  from  6 
to  12  inches  in  diameter.  Far-sighted  owners  who  hold 
and  protect  these  stands  will  furnish  the  stumpage  of  the 
immediate  future.  Their  profit  will  be  high,  partly 
through  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  partly  through  the 
increase  in  the  stumpage  value  of  trees  of  moderate 
size. 

Investments  of  this  sort  should  attract  capital,  even 
under  our  present  conditions.  The  original  investment 
called  for  is  comparatively  small,  and  both  sure  and  early 
profits  are  clearly  in  sight.  The  forestry  which  will 
most  generally  appeal  to  private  owners  now  is  of  this 
class,  where  thrifty  and  rapidly  growing  trees  can  be 
reserved  as  a  basis  for  later  cutting  at  the  same  time  that 
renewal  of  the  forest  for  an  entirely  new  crop  is  pro- 
vided for. 

Investments  in  Natural  Reproduction. — One  serious 
objection  which  may  be  raised  to  the  foregoing  presenta- 
tion of  an  opening  for  private  forestry  is  that  it  is  fores- 
try with  forestry  left  out;  for  earlier  in  this  chapter  it  was 
shown  that  reproduction  is  necessary  in  order  to  have  true 
forestry.  The  average  American  lumberman  has  not  been 
much  more  interested  in  natural  reproduction  than  in 
plantations.  He  is  interested  in  a  conservative  forest 
policy,  which  will  mean  a  return  in  10,  15,  or  25  years. 
It  is  hard  for  him  to  interest  himself  in  returns  one 
or  two  generations  hence.  Nevertheless,  the  question  of 
reproduction  is  well  worth  his  attention  on  practical 
grounds,  even  though  he  has  not  the  interest  of  the 


INTRODUCTION 


25 


owners  who  are  planning  a  heritage  for  their  children  and 
grandchildren,  or  of  corporations  organized  on  such  a 
permanent  basis  that  they  can  look  far  into  the  future. 

Already  in  the  best  settled  portions  of  the  country 
land  well  stocked  with  young  growth  brings  a  higher 
price  than  denuded  land.  Even  the  land  speculator  who 
has  no  interest  in  permanent  forestry  may  well  take  this 
into  account.  Reproduction  can  be  secured  naturally  in 
most  cases  w  here  a  second  cut  is  contemplated.  If  there 
is  enough  rapid-growing  timber  of  medium  size  to  make 
holding  it  for  a  second  cut  good  business,  natural  repro- 
duction can  be  secured  from  the  reserved  trees,  provided 
fires  are  controlled.  The  holding  of  immature  timber 
necessitates  a  certain  amount  of  protection,  which,  with 
comparatively  little  additional  outlay,  will  suffice  to 
secure  reproduction  sufficient  to  maintain  the  required 
minimum  of  production. 

Progress  of  Private  Forestry. — In  progressive  States 
which  have  inaugurated  a  system  of  fire  protection,  the 
hazard  from  forest  fires  is  already  under  way  to  be  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  making  it  worth  while  for  for- 
est owners  to  look  beyond  the  cutting  of  trees  now 
half-grown,  and  to  replace  the  old  stands  by  natural  re- 
production or  planting.  Farmers  are  beginning  to  prac- 
tise forestry  in  order  to  produce  wood  and  timber  for 
their  own  use  and  for  sale,  and  also  in  order  to  increase 
the  sale  value  of  their  property.  Large  private  owners 
are  now  considering  this  question  from  the  standpoints 
of  the  actual  returns  from  the  increased  value  of  the 


26  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.   6. — A  Forest  of  American  White  Pine  in  Germany. 


INTRODUCTION  27 

land,   the   continuance  of   the   lumber  trade,   and  their 
responsibilities  to  the  public. 

Already  in  a  number  of  the  States,  as  for  example  in 
Idaho  and  Washington,  large  owners  are  forming  partner- 
ship associations  for  fire  protection  and  the  practise  of 
forestry.  In  the  author's  judgment,  the  time  is  not  far 
distant  when  the  States  will  fulfil  their  responsibilities  in 
the  matter  of  aid  to  the  private  owners  in  fire  protection, 
taxes,  and  other  ways,  which  will  make  it  possible  for 
private  owners  to  practise  forestry,  and  that  there  will 
then  be  carried  out,  on  such  private  lands  as  are  not 
better  suited  for  agriculture  or  other  purposes,  a  system 
of  forestry  which  will  at  least  maintain  the  minimum 
of  production.  This  will  be  conducted  voluntarily  or 
under  the  guidance  of  the  State. 

Reproduction  Cuttings 

Prompt  reproduction  after  cutting  constitutes  one  of 
the  important  objects  of  forestry.  Whenever  a  stand  or 
portion  of  a  mature  stand  is  cut,  the  design  is  to  establish 
new  growth  in  its  place,  as  soon  as  possible.  Cuttings 
made  with  the  expectation  of  replacement  are  called  re- 
production cuttings.  They  are  in  contrast  to  improvement 
cuttings,  whose  object  is  primarily  to  improve  a  growing 
stand  and  not  to  remove  it  and  restock  the  area  with  new 
trees. 

Classification  of  the  Trees  in  a  Forest 

It  is  customary,  for  various  purposes  in  forest  work,  to 
group  the  trees  into  classes.  There  are  three  different 


28  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

principles  of  classifying  trees:  First  by  age,  second  by 
size,  and  third  by  development  of  crown  and  position  in 
the  stand. 

Age-Class. — It  is  customary  to  classify  the  trees  in  a 
forest  in  arbitrary  age-classes.  Usually  the  range  of  a 
single  age-class  is  20  years.  Thus,  if  the  oldest  trees  are 
120  years,  there  would  be  6  age-classes,  1-20,  21-40, 
41-60,  61-80,  81-100,  101-120  years.  Sometimes,  in 
our  forests,  age-classes  of  SO  years  are  used.  In  Europe 
10-year  age-classes  may  be  used,  but  the  20-year  age-class 
is  most  common,  both  here  and  abroad. 

Size-Class. — In  a  great  deal  of  forest  work  it  is  more 
convenient  to  classify  the  trees  by  size  than  by  age. 
The  simplest  classification  is  by  inch-diameter  groups. 
Two-inch  or  4-inch  or  other  classes  are  used,  according 
to  convenience.  In  certain  work  in  forest  mensuration 
height-classes  are  also  used. 

Crown-Class. — Trees  are  classified  also  with  reference 
to  the  development  of  the  crowns  and  their  position  in 
the  canopy  of  the  forest.  If  the  trees  in  an  even-aged 
stand  are  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  wide 
variation  in  the  development  of  the  crowns.  Some  trees 
are  distinctly  the  leaders,  with  crowns  well  developed, 
and  occupy  the  principal  position  in  the  canopy.  Other 
trees,  crowded  from  the  side  by  their  more  thrifty  neigh- 
bors, lag  behind  in  their  growth,  are  shorter,  and  have 
a  smaller  crown  and  a  smaller  diameter  than  the  leaders. 
Still  other  trees  are  entirely  overtopped  and  after  a  time 
are  killed.  Five  crown  classes  are  recognized,  as  shown 


INTRODUCTION 


29 


30  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

in  the  following  list,  and  as  illustrated  in  the  sketch  on 
page  29. 

1.  Dominant  trees — the  ordinary  leading  trees  with 
full  crown. 

2.  Co-dominant  trees — those  beginning  to  lag  behind 
the  dominant  trees  in  height,  crowded  from  the  side,  and 
having  narrow  crowns. 

3.  Intermediate   trees — those  with   crowns    retarded 
by  crowding  of  the  upper  as  well  as  of  the  lower  part  of 
crown,  but  still  vigorous  and  usually  capable  of  recovery 
if  released. 

4.  Suppressed  trees — those  entirely  overtopped. 

5.  Dead  trees. 

The  Stand. — The  term  stand  is  a  general  expression 
applied  to  any  given  portion  of  a  forest  having  a  distinct 
character.  The  characteristics  distinguishing  a  given 
stand  may  be  age,  form,  density,  quality,  value,  growth, 
yield,  etc.  Thus,  such  expressions  are  used  as  a  20- 
year-old  stand,  a  selection  stand,  a  dense  stand,  a  broken 
stand,  etc.  A  forest  is  made  up  of  a  multitude  of  stands. 

Origin  of  Stands. — Stands  are  distinguished  according 
to  whether  the  trees  have  originated  from  seed  or  from 
sprouts,  or  from  boui  combined.  The  stand  originating 
from  the  seed  is  usually  called  a  high  forest;  that  from 
sprouts  a  coppice  or  sprout  forest;  if  both  classes  of  trees  are 
represented  it  h  a  composite  forest. 

Form  of  the  Stand. — The  result  of  the  competition 
between  trees  in  the  forest  under  a  given  set  of  conditions 


INTRODUCTION  3 1 

is  a  stand  of  characteristic  form.  The  form  of  a  stand 
has  reference  to  the  arrangement  among  the  different  tree- 
classes.  The  form  depends  primarily  on  the  distribution 
of  the  age-classes.  Trees  of  different  ages  may  mingle 
together  promiscuously;  the  age-classes  may  be  in  groups; 
the  trees  may.be  all  of  about  the  same  age;  or  there 
may  be  a  more  or  less  complete  canopy  of  crowns,  and 
underneath  this  a  separate  story  of  smaller  trees,  whose 
crowns  form  a  secondary  canopy.  The  forms  most  com- 
monly recognized  are  the  following: 

A.  HIGH  FOREST  FORMS. 

1.  Selection  Form. — Trees  of  different  ages,  from  the 
seedling  to  maturity,  are  represented,  mingled  individ- 
ually or  in  small  groups. 

2.  Regular  or  Even- Aged  Form. — The  trees  are  ap- 
proximately   even-aged.      The  term  is   not  confined  to 
stands  in  which  the  trees  are  exactly  even-aged.      If  the 
majority  of  the  trees  have  nearly  the  same  age  and  their 
crowns  form  a  clearly  defined,  regular  canopy,  the  stand 
is  classed  as  regular.     In  a  virgin  forest  a  stand  is  regular 
if  the  majority  of  the  trees  are  of  merchantable  size. 

3.  Irregular  Form. — Through  unregulated  cuttings  or 
accidental  injuries  the  stand  has  been  broken  and  there  is 
an   irregular  representation  of  two  or  more  ages.     The 
age-classes  are  not  all  at  hand,  and  therefore  it  is  not  of 
the  selection  form.     The  irregular  form  necessarily  varies 
enormously. 

4.  Two-Storied  Form. — There  are  two  distinct  stands 


32  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

of  regular  form  on  the  same  area,  one  growing  under- 
neath the  other. 

5.  The  Reserve  Form. — In  a  regular  stand  there  are 
scattered  older  trees  remaining  over  a  second  rotation. 

B.  COPPICE  FORMS. 

1.  Regular  Coppice  Form. — The  sprouts  are  approxi- 
mately of  the  same  age. 

2.  Irregular  Coppice  Form. — As  a  result  of  bad  treat- 
ment, various  ages  are  irregularly  represented. 

C.  COMPOSITE  FORMS. 

1.  Regular  Composite  Form. — Sprouts  and   seedling 
trees  of  approximately  the  same  age  are  growing  together. 

2.  Irregular    Composite  Form. — Through    abuse,    an 
irregular  mixture  of  ages  occurs,  with  both  sprouts  and 
seedling  trees  represented. 

3.  Coppice  with  Standards. — Upon  a  given  area  there 
is  a  regular  coppice  stand,  and  also  scattered  trees,  origi- 
nating from   the  seed,  which  are  allowed  to  grow  over 
several  sprout  rotations. 

The  Silvicultural  Systems 

A  silvicultural  system  is  a  broad  plan  of  management 
under  which  a  forest  is  reproduced  and  developed. 
In  order  to  handle  forests  with  a  view  to  continued 
production  of  timber,  ordinary  lumbering  must  be  modi- 
fied or  supplemented  by  special  measures.  To  justify 
such  investments  as  these  measures  involve  the  forester 


INTRODUCTION 


33 


FIG.  "8. — A  Selection  Stand.     Spruce  in  the  Mountains  of  Austria. 


FIG.    9. — An  Even-Aged  Stand.      Mature  Beech  in  Germany. 


34  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

must  have  clearly  in  mind  the  results  which  may  be 
secured,  what  kind  of  forest  will  be  produced,  "what 

«•  :'*,, 

species  will  compose  it,  what  form  it  will  have,  and  the 
yield  in  salable  products. 

Definite  results  can  only  be  secured  under  a  system- 
atic procedure.  There  have  been  developed  by-  experi- 
ence certain  principles  of  handling  forests  of  different 
character.  These  principles  have  been  brought  together 
and  systematized,  and  are  expressed  as  silvicultural 
systems.  These  systems  do  not,  however,  represent 
conventional  rules  for  cutting,  as  often  supposed,  but 
rather  are  principles  enabling  the  forester  to  systematize 
and  control  his  work,  and  definitely  to  accomplish  the 
purposes  of  management. 

The  silvicultural  systems  differ  primarily  in  the  man- 
ner of  cutting  and  reproducing  the  stand.  A  given 
method  of  reproduction  cutting  results  in  a  new  stand, 
which  has  a  characteristic  form.  Under  systematic  for- 
estry, stands  of  a  given  form  are  given  a  specific  treat- 
ment later.  In  forests  thoroughly  organized,  therefore, 
the  silvicultural  system  has  a  broader  significance  "than 
merely  a  method  of  reproduction,  and  comprises  also  the 
development  of  the  stand.  In  a  new  country,  where  the 
forests  are  irregular  and  the  market  conditions  often  poor 
or  uncertain,  it  may  be  impossible  to  foresee  the  later 
handling  of  the  forest.  For  American  foresters  the 
essential  idea  in  a  silvicultural  system  is,  therefore,  the 
method  of  cutting  and  reproducing  the  stand. 


INTRODUCTION  35 

Classification  of  Silvicultural  Systems 

In  the  following  pages  are  enumerated  the  silvicultural 
systems  of  most  importance  to  the  American  forester. 
These  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  used  in  other 
countries.  In  Europe,  there  are  some  systems  represent- 
ing modifications  of  those  in  this  list,  and  adapted  to 
the  special  conditions  obtaining  abroad.  Some  of  those 
given  prominence  here  are  no  longer  considered  of  im- 
portance abroad,  but  were  formerly  used  when  the  forest 
and  market  conditions  were  similar  to  those  which  are 
now  found  in  this  country.  As  the  markets  improve, 
the  systems  used  in  this  country  will,  in  their  applica- 
tion, be  more  and  more  like  those  of  Europe. 

The  list  of  systems  differs  in  arrangement  slightly 
from  that  found  in  most  text-books.  The  present 
arrangement  has  been  chosen  as  the  one  which  has 
seemed  to  the  author  to  be  most  helpful  to  the  ordinary 
student,  in  view  of  the  prevailing  literature  and  the  cur- 
rent ideas  and  practise  of  forestry  in  this  country. 

The  silvicultural  svstems  of  chief  importance  to  the 
American  forester  may  be  grouped  under  the  following 
heads : 

I.     Systems  Depending  on  Reproduction  by  Seed. 

A.  THE  SELECTION  SYSTEM. 

Applicable  to  stands  in  which  trees  of  all  age.  are 
represented.  The  old  trees,  scattered  or  in  groups,  are 
selected  for  removal;  the  immature  trees  remain  standing. 


36  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

B.  THE  CLEAR-CUTTING  SYSTEMS. 

1.  Clear-Cutting  with  Artificial  Reproduction. 

a.  Clear-Cutting  the  Whole  Stand. — The  whole  stand 

is  clear-cut  in  one  operation,  and  the  area  re- 
stocked by  artificial  seeding  or  planting. 

b.  Clear-Cutting  in  Strips. — The  stand  is  removed 

gradually  by  a  series  of  clear-cuttings  in  strips. 

c.  Clear-Cutting  in  Patches. — The  stand  is  removed 

gradually  by  a  series  of  clear-cutting  opera- 
tions, at  least  the  first  cuttings  having  the  form 
of  irregular  patches  cut  in  the  stand. 

2.  Clear-Cutting  with  Natural  Reproduction. 

a.  Clear-Cutting  the   Whole  Stand. — The   stand    is 

clear-cut  in  one  operation,  and  the  surround- 
ing stands  are  relied  upon  for  reproduction. 

b.  Reserving    Blocks    of   Trees. — The  stand  is  cut 

clear,  except  for  large  blocks  of  trees  left  stand- 
ing for  seed,  the  latter  usually  constituting 
not  over  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  area. 

c.  Reserving  Scattered  Seed-Trees. — The  stand  is  cut 

clear,  except  for  scattered  individual  trees  left 
standing  for  seed. 

d.  Reserving  Groups  of  Seed-Trees. — The  stand  is 

cut  clear,  except  small  groups  left  here  and 
there  for  seed. 

e.  Reserving  Thrifty  Standards. — All  trees  are  cut, 

except  a  limited  number  of  thrifty  individuals 
left  to  furnish  seed,  and  to  grow  with  the  new 


INTRODUCTION  37 

stand  over  a  second  rotation.  This  differs  from 
the  scattered  seed-tree  system  in  that  the  trees 
left  standing  are  much  more  numerous  and 
are  of  a  character  to  live  through  a  second 
rotation. 

f.  Clear-Cutting  in  Strips. — The  stand  is  removed 

in  a  series  of  strips,  and  reproduction  secured 
from  the  uncut  portions  of  the  stand. 

g.  Clear-Cutting  in  Patches. — The  stand  is  removed 

by  a  series  of  clear-cuttings  in  irregular  patches 
of  limited  size,  and  reproduction  secured  from 
the  side. 

C.  THE  SHELTERWOOD  SYSTEM. 

1.  Cuttings  Distributed   Uniformly. — The  stand  is  re- 
moved gradually  by  a  series  of  thinnings;  each  thinning 
extends  throughout  the  stand,  and  gives  it  a  uniform 
character.     The  new  stand  starts  under  the  shelter  of  the 
trees  left  standing,  which  act  as  a  protection.    The  whole 
stand  is  usually  removed  within  a  period  of  twenty  to 
thirty  years. 

2.  Cutting  in  Groups. — The  stand  is  removed  grad- 
ually   by   a  series  of  thinnings  which  are  not  uniform 
over  the  whole  area,  but  concentrated  on  groups  from 
which,  as  centers,  the  reproduction  is  progressively  se- 
cured. 

3.  Cutting  in  Strips. — The  stand  is  removed  gradually 
by  a  series  of  thinnings,  the  work  proceeding  in  progres- 
sive strips  rather  than  uniformly  over  the  whole  stand. 


38  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

II.     Systems  Depending  on  Reproduction  Wholly  or 
Partly  from  Sprouts  (Coppice). 

a.  Simple  Coppice. — A  stand   of   hardwoods  is  cut 

clear  and  reproduction  from  sprouts  almost 
entirely  relied  upon.  This  system  is  usually 
managed  on  a  very  short  rotation. 

b.  Coppice  with  Standards. — The  bulk  of  the  area 

is  occupied  by  sprouts  cut  on  a  short  rotation. 
Mingled  with  them  are  thrifty  trees  allowed  to 
grow  through  one  or  more  rotations  of  the 
coppice. 

c.  Pole-Wood    Coppice. — An    even-aged    stand    of 

sprouts  and  trees  from  the  seed,  combined,  is 
allowed  to  grow  to  pole-wood  size  (40  to  70 
years  of  age),  and  then  reproduced  in  part  bv 
sprouts,  in  part  by  natural  seeding. 

Combination  of  Silvicultural  Systems 

The  various  systems  are  very  frequently  combined. 
It  is  particularly  common  to  combine  systems  of  natural 
reproduction  and  systems  of  clear-cutting  with  arti- 
ficial reproduction.  Thus,  a  portion  of  the  stand  may 
be  reproduced  naturally,  and  then  the  balance  clear- 
cut  and  replanted;  or  patches  may  be  clear-cut  and 
restocked  with  certain  species,  and  then  the  rest  repro- 
duced naturally.  The  forester  uses  that  method,  or 
combination  of  methods,  which  will  best  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  forest  and  its  management. 


INTRODUCTION  39 

Application  of  Silvicultural  Systems 

If  the  conditions  of  the  forest  and  those  affecting  lum- 
bering are  uniform,  the  forester  may  use  a  given  system 
over  the  whole  forest.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  Minne- 
sota National  Forest  the  land  is  flat  and  the  logging 
conditions  are  fairly  uniform.  The  forest  is  also  suffi- 
ciently uniform  to  enable  the  application  of  one  system 
— the  scattered  seed-tree  system — over  most  of  the  area. 

Usually  conditions  are  variable,  and  a  system  applic- 
able in  one  place  is  not  suitable  on  other  areas.  Even 
in  the  regular  forests  of  Europe  there  are  usually  in  each 
forest  several  different  silvicultural  systems  in  operation. 
In  this  country  the  forests  are  so  irregular  and  the 
logging  conditions  so  variable  that  often  in  a  single 
logging  operation  more  systems  than  one  are  used.  For 
example,  in  a  forest  chiefly  of  the  selection  character  and 
requiring  the  selection  system,  there  may  be  patches  of 
even-aged  timber  which  must  be  handled  under  one  of 
the  other  systems.  In  every  case,  the  forester  applies  the 
system  best  adapted  to  meet  the  special  conditions  under 
which  he  works. 

Not  only  does  the  choice  of  a  system  of  cutting  de- 
pend on  local  conditions,  but  the  application  of  a  given 
system  is  subject  to  great  variation.  The  application  of 
a  given  silvicultural  system  is  dependent  on  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  stand  and  on  the  market  and  log- 
ging conditions. 

Every  species  has  its  peculiar  requirements  for  repro- 


40  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

duction  and  growth,  and  these  are  subject  to  great  va- 
riation under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
Stands  vary  enormously  in  composition,  form,  density, 
and  thriftiness.  The  forester  must  know  the  habits  and 
requirements  of  the  different  species,  and  must  be  able 
to  diagnose  the  needs  of  any  given  stand,  in  order  to 
handle  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  results  desired. 

Every  measure  of  practical  silviculture  is,  however, 
subject  to  local  conditions  of  markets  and  logging.  The 
owner  desires  as  high  a  production  as  possible,  but  the 
question  of  cost  will  always  shape  the  method  of  apply- 
ing his  operations.  Not  only  may  the  market  and  log- 
ging conditions  determine  the  system  of  silviculture; 
they  will  always  be  a  great  factor  in  determining  the  de- 
gree of  intensity  of  the  work,  and  govern  the  details  of 
operation. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  various  systems  of  silviculture, 
repeated  references  will  be  made  to  the  different  factors 
which  modify  the  working  out  of  details  on  the  ground. 

Choice  of  Species 

In  reproducing  a  forest,  one  aims  to  establish  the 
species  which  will  best  meet  the  objects  of  management. 
In  artificial  reproduction  there  is,  theoretically,  a  choice 
among  all  species  adapted  to  the  local  climate  and  soil. 
In  practise,  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  trees  or  seed  of 
only  a  limited  number  of  species. 

When  natural  reproduction  is  used,  choice  is  restricted 
to  the  species  already  growing  on  the  ground.  In  a  mixed 


INTRODUCTION  41 

forest  there  are  always  some  species  more  desirable  than 
others.  Poor  forestry  results  in  the  decrease  of  the  bet- 
ter species.  In  making  cuttings  for  natural  reproduction 
the  better  species  are  favored,  with  the  aim  of  securing  as 
large  a  proportion  of  them  as  possible  in  the  new  crop. 

Successful  forestry  results,  in  the  long  run,  in  the 
gradual  reduction  in  the  proportion  of  the  less  valuable 
species,  and  their  replacement  by  the  more  desirable 
ones. 

In  determining  the  most  desirable  species,  the  follow- 
ing points  are  considered: 

1.  The  Intrinsic  Value. — Ordinarily   the   tree   whose 
wood  is  of  the  greatest  intrinsic  value  is  preferred. 

2.  The  Rapidity  of  Growth. — Often  a  rapid   growing 
tree  is  preferred,  even  if  its  wood  is  less  valuable  than 
that  of  some  other  species. 

3.  Suitability  to  Market. — The  future  market  must  be 
considered,  as  well  as  the  present.     Frequently,  foresters 
regard  certain  species  as  undesirable  because  there  is  no 
present  market  for  them,  when  their  intrinsic  qualities 
indicate  that  ultimately  they  \vill  be  valuable. 

4.  Logging  Conditions. — The  problem  of  handling  and 
transporting  the  logs  must  be  considered.     In  the  moun- 
tains conifers  are  usually  preferred  to  hardwoods,  because 
they  are  more  easily  handled;  and  if  there  are  streams, 
they  can  be  driven.     It  is  not  merely  the  probable  mar- 
ket which  is  considered,  but  also  the  cost  of  placing  the 
product  on  the  market.     The  profits,   rather  than   the 
market  value,  may  determine  the  desirability  of  a  species. 


42  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

5.  Cost  of  Reproduction. — Some  species  cost  more  than 
others  to  reproduce,  both  artificially  and  naturally. 

6.  Resistance  to  Injury. — Species  subject  to  damage  by 
wind,  insects,  disease,  or  other  damage  may  be  rejected, 
even  though  otherwise  desirable.     A  species  may  some- 
times be  favored  primarily  because  of  its  ability  to  resist 
fire. 

7.  Sihicultural  Value. — A  species  may  be  of  special 
value  in  its  influence  on  the  growth  of  its  neighbors  or 
in  conserving  the  factors  of  site.      Thus,  hemlock  in 
mixture  with  pine  helps  the  development  of  the  latter, 
and  furnishes  an  excellent  soil  cover. 

8.  Esthetic   Value. — Sometimes  a  species    is   chosen 
because  of  its  peculiar  value  from  the  esthetic  or  senti- 
mental standpoint.     This  question  becomes  of   impor- 
tance on  private  estates,  and  those  public  forests  which 
are  used  as  recreation  resorts. 

Pure  and  Mixed  Stands  Contrasted 

A  pure  stand  is  one  composed  of  a  single  species. 
As  the  terms  are  used  in  this  country,  the  stand  is  called 
pure  if  80  per  cent,  of  the  main  crop  is  composed  of  one 
species.  If  there  are  two  or  more  species,  and  no  one  of 
them  comprises  over  80  per  cent.,  it  is  a  mixed  stand. 
The  aim  of  forestry  is  to  reduce  the  proportion  of  the 
less  valuable  species  in  the  forest.  Ultimately  the  un- 
desired  species  will  be  represented  only  as  scattered, 
accidental  specimens.  The  tendency  in  forestry  is 
constantly  toward  pure  stands.  This  is  especially  true 


I 
INTRODUCTION  43 

where  stands  are  established  by  artificial  seeding,  or 
planting.  The  forester  is  apt  to  choose  the  species 
which  give  promise  of  the  highest  returns,  and  to 
establish  pure  stands  of  it.  Then  again,  the  seeding 
or  planting  of  a  single  species  is  simpler  and  often 
cheaper  than  if  two  or  more  species  are  in  mixture. 

There  are,  however,  certain  advantages  in  producing 
mixed  forests,  and  these  should  be  considered  when  a 
new  stand  is  established.  They  are  as  follows: 

1.  Mixed  crops  form  a  denser  leaf-canopy,  and  hence 
cast  a  heavier  shade  than  pure  stands.     This  is  due  to 
the   overlapping  of  the  crowns  of  trees   whose   natural 
crown  development  and  ability  to  bear  crowding  differ. 

2.  In  a  judicious  mixture  of  species  there  are  a  lar- 
ger number  of  trees  than  in  pure  stands.    This  is  the 
result  of  differences  in  ability  to  endure  crowding,  dif- 
ferences in  crown  development,  and  differences  in  root 
development. 

3.  It  has  been  actually  demonstrated  that  a  larger  vol- 
ume of  product  can  be  obtained  in  mixed  than  in  pure 
stands. 

4.  Many  species  are  less  subject  to  damage  from  fire, 
insects,  disease,  and  windfall  when  in  mixture  than  when 
grown  pure. 

5.  By  a  judicious  mixture  certain  trees  develop  a  bet- 
ter form,  and  hence  higher  quality  of  wood,  than  in  pure 
stand. 

6.  Mixed  stands  have  a  higher  esthetic  value  than 
pure  stands. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SELECTION   SYSTEM 

Origin  of  the  Selection  System 

As  a  rule,  the  original  forest  is  composed  of  trees  of 
all  ages  mingled  together  promiscuously,  as  individuals 
or  in  groups.  In  the  early  days  in  this  country  the 
smaller  trees  were  not  cut,  because  they  could  not  be 
sold.  The  first  lumbering,  therefore,  consisted  in  select- 
ing here  and  there  a  tree  or  group  of  trees  and  leaving 
the  remainder  in  the  forest.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
prevent  damage  to  the  younger  trees,  but  so  few  trees 
were  taken  that  comparatively  little  damage  was  done 
and  the  forest  was  left  in  fairly  good  condition.  As  the 
market  improved  and  smaller  trees  became  salable,  the 
cuttings  were  progressively  heavier.  In  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  for  example,  the  first  lumbering  removed  only 
the  larger  pine  and  the  choicest  spruce;  later,  spruce  was 
taken  down  to  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  still  later  spruce 
down  to  6  or  5  inches  was  cut,  with  any  of  the  choicest 
hardwoods  in  addition.  To-day,  in  sections  where  nearly 
all  trees  are  merchantable,  lumbering  practically  results 
in  clear-cutting. 

It  is  natural  that  the  first  conception  of  forestry  under 
the  primitive  conditions  in  a  new  country  is  to  cut  only 

44 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  45 

the  largest  trees  and  to  reserve  and  protect  the  middle- 
sized  and  young  trees,  which  will  reach  merchantable  size 
in  a  comparatively  short  time  and  will  furnish  the  basis  of 
the  future  cuts.  This  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  the 
selection  system.  As  far  as  the  selection  of  the  trees  to  be 
cut  was  concerned,  the  earliest  lumbermen  practised  it  as 
a  matter  of  course.  The  forester  takes  the  principle  and 
applies  it  systematically,  with  the  object  of  reproducing 
and  so  perpetuating  the  forest.  By  the  system,  as  the 
forester  uses  it,  the  old  trees  and  others  which  have  passed 
their  effective  growth  are  cut,  the  immature  trees  are  pro- 
tected and  encouraged,  and  reproduction  is  secured  in  the 
openings  made  by  the  cuttings.  A  given  cutting  never 
clears  an  entire  stand,  but  makes  only  small  openings. 

Theory  of  the  Selection  System 

The  selection  system  is  applicable  to  selection  stands; 
that  is,  those  in  which  trees  of  different  ages  are  repre- 
sented. An  ideal  selection  stand  is  one  in  which  trees 
of  all  ages,  from  the  seedling  to  the  mature  tree,  mingle 
together  in  full  proportion.  Even  in  the  best  selection 
forests,  however,  every  year  in  the  rotation  would  not 
be  represented.  If  the  rotation  were  100  years,  there 
would  never  be  trees  of  every  age,  from  1  year  up  to  100 
years,  because  seed  is  only  produced  at  intervals.  It  is 
an  ideal  selection  forest  if  all  age-classes  are  proportion- 
ately represented.  Thus  if  the  rotation  were  100  years 
and  the  age-classes  comprise  20  years  each,  the  oldest 
age-class  should  occupy  in  the  aggregate  about  20  per 


46  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


Profile  of  an  Ideal  Selection  Stand.     Fig.  10.  Stand  before  First  Cutting 
Fig.  11.  Stand  Twenty  Years  later,  and  ready  for  Second  Cutting. 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  47 

cent,  of  the  area,  and  the  other  classes  should  have 
enough  trees  so  that,  as  each  comes  to  maturity,  it  will 
occupy  20  per  cent,  of  the  area. 

In  making  selection  cuttings  in  this  ideal  forest,  the 
oldest  age-class  would  be  removed  during  the  first  20 
years.  Then  the  trees  in  the  next  age-class  would  begin 
to  come  to  maturity,  and  would  be  cut  during  the  fol- 
lowing 20  years.  If  successful  reproduction  were  se- 
cured, this  process  might  be  continued  indefinitely. 

The  theory  of  the  selection  system  is  illustrated  on 
page  46.  Fig.  10  represents  a  fragment  of  a  selection 
forest  just  before  cutting.  The  trees  designated  as  "I" 
are  mature,  and  are  therefore  removed.  Fig.  11  shows 
the  same  stand  after  20  years.  The  trees  marked  "II" 
in  Fig.  11  are  now  growrn  into  the  mature  class,  and 
are  ready  for  cutting.  All  trees  have  grown  both  in 
height,  diameter,  and  crown  surface.  Several  trees  have 
disappeared  as  a  result  of  the  mutual  crowding.  Small 
groups  of  young  seedlings  are  found  growing  in  the 
openings  made  by  cutting. 

In  some  cases  a  stand  is  cut  through  every  year.  In 
the  theoretical  example  this  would  mean  cutting  each 
year  one-twentieth  of  the  oldest  age-class.  Usually  it  is 
impracticable  to  make  annual  cuttings,  and  the  stand 
is  cut  through  periodically.  The  interval  between 
cuts  may  be  called  the  cutting  cycle.  In  Europe,  the 
cutting  cycle  is  usually  about  10  years.  In  this  country 
the  interval  between  cuts  will  more  often  be  from  20 
to  50  years. 


48  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

Principles  of  Limiting  the  Cut 

In  making  selection  cuttings  the  design  is  to  remove 
primarily  trees  in  the  mature  age-class.  Even  where  all 
age-classes  are  well  represented,  they  are  usually  not  so 
clearly  differentiated  as  in  the  theoretical  example  shown 
on  page  46.  When  the  market  conditions  are  at  all 
favorable,  not  only  the  trees  in  the  oldest  age-class,  but 
also  those  in  the  younger  classes  are  merchantable.  The 
restriction  of  the  cut  to  the  oldest  class  would  mean  then 
that  many  trees  for  which  there  is  a  market  are  left 
standing  as  the  basis  of  the  next  cut.  'There  is  always  a 
temptation  to  increase  the  cut  as  much  as  possible,  in 
order  to  show  a  large  return  and  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
logging.  It  is  obvious  chat  there  must  be  some  definite 
principle  of  restricting  the  cut  to  prevent  the  removal  of 
such  a  large  proportion  of  the  trees  of  intermediate  ages 
and  sizes  that  succeeding  returns  will  be  greatly  dimin- 
ished, and  to  prevent  disturbing  the  arrangement  of  the 
age-classes  to  such  a  degree  that  the  continuance  of 
the  selection  system  is  impossible. 

*  There  are  two  fundamental  principles  which  must 
never  be  lost  sight  of:  (1)  The  maintenance  of  the  rate 
of  growth  of  the  stand,  and  (2)  the  continuance  of  a 
proper  representation  of  age-classes. 

If  the  age-classes  are  all  represented  in  proper  pro- 
portion, the  problem  is  simple.  The  growth  is  deter- 
mined in  advance,  and  the  cut  limited  to  this  amount. 
The  trees  removed  are  selected  primarily  among  the 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  49 

oldest  trees.  If  a  given  stand  is  cut  through  each  year, 
there  is  removed  an  amount  equal  to  the  annual  growth 
of  the  whole  stand.  If  the  stand  is  cut  every  10  years,  each 
cutting  removes  an  equivalent  of  10  years'  growth.  As  all 
age-classes  are  at  hand,  there  are  continuously  trees  grow- 
ing into  the  merchantable  class  as  a  basis  for  the  next  cut. 

The  theory  may  be  illustrated  by  a  concrete  exam- 
ple. Suppose  that  the  stand  comprises  100  acres,  the 
annual  growth  is  found  to  be  250  board  feet  per  acre, 
and  the  cutting  cycle  is  10  years;  then  2,500  board  feet 
per  acre,  or  250,000  feet  on  the  whole  tract,  may  be 
removed  at  each  cutting,  provided  there  are  no  special 
conditions  to  modify  this  amount.  In  a  stand  in  which 
the  age-classes  are  well  represented,  the  proportion  of  the 
total  area  uncovered  by  a  given  cutting,  that  is,  the 
aggregate  of  all  openings  taken  together,  ic  approximately 
equivalent  to  the  rotation  divided  by  the  cutting  cycle. 
Thus,  if  the  rotation  is  150  years,  and  the  cutting  cycle 
is  25  years,  each  cutting  uncovers  in  aggregate  of  all 
small  openings  one-sixth  of  the  area. 

In  the  continued  operation  of  a  selection  forest  it  is 
exceedingly  desirable  to  have  the  different  age-classes 
represented  in  their  proper  proportion.  Obviously,  if  a 
given  age-class  is  not  represented  or  is  deficient  it  is  not 
possible  to  cut  at  regular  intervals  an  amount  of  timber 
equivalent  to  the  full  growth  of  the  stand.  Suppose,  for 
example,  that  in  a  selection  forest  handled  on  a  rotation 
of  100  years  the  oldest  age-class,  namely  from  80  to  100 
years,  is  represented  in  full  proportion,  while  there  are 


SO  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

no  trees  at  all  from  60  to  80  years  of  age,  and  the  place 
which  would  normally  be  occupied  by  this  age-class  is 
covered  with  trees  less  than  sixty  years  old.  It  is  clear 
that  after  the  expiration  of  20  years  and  the  oldest  age- 
class  is  removed,  there  would  be  no  trees  at  all  from  80 
to  100  years  old,  and  it  would  be  necessary  to  wait  another 
20  years  before  cuttings  could  be  made.  *  Unless,  there- 
fore, all  age-classes  are  normally  represented  the  cuttings 
must  be  at  irregular  intervals. 

*  The  selection  system  is  applied  in  this  country  chiefly 
in  virgin  forests.  The  normal  form  of  a  virgin  forest  is 
of  a  selection  character;  that  is,  it  consists  of  trees  of  dif- 
ferent ages  mingled  together  promiscuously.  The  forests 
of  the  United  States,  however,  have  in  the  past  been  seri- 
ously damaged  by  destructive  fires.  It  is  common,  there- 
fore, to  find  in  virgin  forests  stands  of  great  age  which 
have  a  regular  or  even-aged  form.  This  occurs  where 
past  fires  have  cleared  the  ground  and  a  new  stand  has 
come  in  on  the  clearing.  Even  in  forests  where  there 
have  been  no  destructive  fires  in  the  past,  frequent  small 
clearings  have  been  made  by  .windfall,  insects,  and  other 
destructive  agencies,  and  the  distribution  of  age-classes  is 
therefore  irregular. 

The  range  of  age-classes  in  most  virgin  forests  is  very 
great.  In  northern  Idaho,  for  example,  the  oldest  trees 
may  be  over  400  years  old.  In  such  forests,  if  there 
have  been  no  disturbances  by  fire  or  otherwise,  all  ages 
may  be  represented.  *  But  in  classifying  the  trees  with  a 
view  to  practical  management  all  the  mature  trees  would 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM 


51 


Fig.    12. — Trees    Designated    for    Cutting   under    the    Selection   System. 
Engelmann  Spruce,  Arapahoe  National  Forest,  Colorado. 


52  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

be  grouped  together  in  the  oldest  age-class  as  trees  which 
have  ceased  productive  growth  and  ought  to  be  cut. 
Thus,  in  northern  Idaho  this  age-class  might  comprise  all 
the  trees  over  about  150  years  of  age.  It  is  evident  that 
under  these  conditions  the  oldest  age-class  would  far 
exceed  in  number  of  trees  any  other  age-class,  and  might 
occupy  in  the  aggregate  50  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  area. 
The  rest  of  the  area  would  be  occupied  by  trees  belong- 
ing, in  more  or  less  varying  proportion,  to  the  age-classes 
below  150  years.  In  handling  a  virgin  forest  this  unde- 
sirable representation  of  the  age-classes  cannot  be  helped. 
The  mature  trees  should  be  cut  and  used,  even  if  their 
removal  disturbs  the  arrangement  of  ages.  In  the  sub- 
sequent treatment  of  the  forest,  however,  the  gradual 
establishment  of  the  proper  proportion  between  the  age- 
classes  is  kept  in  view. 

Very  commonly  in  this  country  it  is  necessary  to 
make  cuttings  before  complete  working  plans  have  been 
developed,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  what 
system  of  management  will  be  best  to  use  in  the  long 
run.  The  first  cuttings  are  therefore  made  conservatively 
on  the  selection  system.  In  some  cases  without  question 
the  second  cuttings  will  be  comparatively  heavy  and  will 
practically  be  shelter-wood  cuttings,  which  transform  the 
stand  in  a  comparatively  short  time  into  an  even-aged 
form.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  at  the  second  cutting  it 
seems  desirable  to  continue  the  selection  system,  cuttings 
are  made  with  a  view  to  bringing  about  a  proper  repre- 
sentation of  different  ages. 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  53 

The  Diameter  Limit 

While  theoretically  one  aims  to  select  trees  for  cutting 
on  a  basis  of  age,  in  actual  practise  the  decision  whether 
a  tree  is  to  be  cut  or  left  standing  for  a  later  cut  depends 
more  on  its  size,  condition,  and  capacity  for  growth  than 
on  its  age.  *For  this  reason  it  is  usually  customary  to- 
restrict  the  cut  on  a  basis  of  size  rather  than  of  age.  vThe 
size  set  as  a  minimum  for  cutting  is  called  the  diameter 
limit. 

The  purpose  of  a  diameter  limit  is  to  aid  in  restrict- 
ing the  cutting  to  those  trees  whose  growth  no  longer 
represents  a  return  satisfactory  to  the  owner.  The  trees 
which  are  thrifty  and  growing  rapidly  are  left  standing, 
regardless  of  their  age,  as  a  basis  for  a  later  cut. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  investigate  the  growth 
of  each  tree  before  cutting.  It  is,  therefore,  customary 
to  determine  in  advance  of  cutting  the  average  diameter 
at  which  trees  cease  to  yield  a  satisfactory  growth.  Un- 
less there  are  some  special  silvicultural  reasons  for  modi- 
fying it,  this  limit  is  used  in  planning  the  work  of 
cutting,  and  as  a  guide  and  check  in  selecting  the  trees. 

When  possible,  the  diameter  limit  of  satisfactory 
growth  is  determined  by  a  thorough  local  investigation. 
Such  a  study  will  show  the  rate  of  growth  of  stands  cut  to 
a  number  of  different  diameter  limits,  and  will  enable 
the  owner  to  fix  upon  that  limit  which  will  result  in  a 
return  most  satisfactory  to  him.  In  making  the  study 
the  forest  is  first  analyzed,  to  determine  the  average  num> 


54  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

her  of  sound  trees  of  different  diameters.  It  is  then 
assumed  that  all  trees  above  a  fixed  diameter  will  be  cut, 
and  those  below  it  left  standing.  In  practice,  the  limit 
is  somewhat  elastic,  but  usually  the  trees  left  standing 
above  a  limit  about  equal  in  volume  those  cut  below  it. 
An  inspection  of  the  forest  shows  that  the  limit  will 
fall  within  a  comparatively  narrow  range.  Thus  in 
Maine  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  average  diameter  limit 
of  spruce  will  be  somewhere  between  8  and  14  inches. 
Accordingly,  a  computation  of  growth  is  made  on  the 
basis  of  cutting  to  8,  10,  12  and  14  inches.  The  limit 
which  shows  the  most  satisfactory  returns  in  volume  or 
in  interest  on  the  investment,  according  to  the  owner's 
wishes,  is  selected  as  the  guide  for  the  cutting. 

This  limit  may  be  modified  slightly  by  special  sil- 
vicultural  considerations,  such  as  danger  from  windfall, 
reproduction,  etc.  These  points  have  usually  a  greater 
bearing  on  the  actual  selection  of  the  trees  than  on  the 
fixing  of  the  average  limit.  A  limitation  of  cut,  based 
on  this  method  of  study,  maintains  the  rate  of  growth 
of  the  forest  and  guarantees  succeeding  cuts  at  short 
intervals. 

*  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  begin  cuttings  before  an 
adequate  study  of  growth  can  be  made.  This  happens 
very  commonly  in  the  National  Forests  when  time, 
money,  or  men  have  been  lacking  to  make  the  investiga- 
tions, and  the  sales  of  timber  cannot  wait  for  possible 
later  appropriations  for  such  work.  In  this  event  the 
forester  aims  to  cut  only  those  mature  trees  which  are 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM 


55 


56  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

obviously  no  longer  making  a  satisfactory  growth,  and 
he  leaves  the  thrifty  trees  for  a  later  cut.  Thus,  while 
no  growth  study  is  made,  the  limitation  of  cut  is  really 
based  on  growth. 

Application  of  a  Diameter  Limit 

In  selecting  the  trees  for  cutting,  one  takes  all  trees 
above  the  diameter  limit  determined  upon,  unless  there 
is  some  reason  for  leaving  them,  and  leaves  all  trees 
below  it,  unless  there  is  some  reason  for  taking  them. 
The  reasons  for  leaving  trees  above  a  chosen  diameter 
limit  may  be  the  following: 

1.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  leave  one  or  more  trees 
for  the  distribution  of  seed  in  an  opening. 

2.  Where    the   removal  of  a   tree   would   expose  a 
group  of  trees  below  the  limit  to  damage  by  windfall. 

3.  Where  a  tree  is  very  thrifty  and  increasing  in  vol- 
ume and  value  very  rapidly. 

4.  Where  the  removal  of  a  tree,  or  group  of  trees, 
would  result   in  erosion  or  serious  damage  to  the   soil 
from  drying. 

5.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  leave  a  tree,  or  trees,  for 
esthetic  reasons,   as,   for   example,   near  roads  of   other 
public  places. 

6.  Where   the   policy   of   management   requires   the 
leaving  of  a  few  prime  trees  for  the  production  of  ex- 
ceptionally high  grades. 

The  circumstances  under  which  trees  below  the  limit 
are  cut  are  as  follows: 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  SI 

1.  Where  trees  are  defective. 

2.  Where  trees  are  growing  very   slowly,    and  are 
unlikely  to  remain  sound  till  the  next  cut. 

3.  Where  trees  are   of  poor  development,  and  are 
retarding  the  growth  of  others  of  greater  promise. 

4.  Where  the  removal  of  trees  of  poor  promise  will 
aid  reproduction. 

5.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  cut  patches  clear,  because 
the  trees,  if  left,  would  not  withstand  the  wind. 

6.  Where  trees  will  inevitably  be  injured  by  the  fell- 
ing of  larger  trees. 

Marking. — The  selection  of  the  trees  to  be  cut  should 
not  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  loggers.  It  has  usu- 
ally been  the  custom  of  lumber  companies  cutting  to  a 
diameter  limit  to  issue  instructions  to  the  sawyers  to  cut 
only  trees  above  a  certain  diameter  on  the  stump.  Even 
when  a  diameter  limit  is  the  only  basis  for  selecting  the 
trees  the  best  results  are  secured  by  marking  in  advance 
each  tree  which  is  to  be  cut.  The  ordinary  logging  crew 
cannot  be  expected  to  measure  the  trees  with  care  and 
accuracy.  The  marking  should  be  done  by  a  special' 
crew  of  men  skilled  in  this  work. 

In  selecting  the  trees  the  chosen  diameter  limit  is  used 
as  a  check.  Accordingly,  the  marker  carries  a  measuring 
rule  of  some  sort.  Some  mark  off  rough  graduations  on 
the  handle  of  the  marking  axe  to  measure  diameters* 
Others  carry  calipers.  Where  only  one  limit  is  used,  as 
when  a  single  species  is  being  marked,  a  set  caliper  or  a 
simple  gage  may  be  used. 


58 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


Diameters  are  best  measured  at  breast-height,  because 
the  diameter  limit  is  based  on  breast-high  diameter 
classes.  A  diameter  limit  based  on^  the  stump  measure- 
ments has  no  value,  on  account  of  the  varying  height  of 
stumps. 

The  trees  are  marked  with  a  special  axe.  '  A  conspic- 
uous blaze  is  made  on  the  tree  for 
the  convenience  of  the  sawyers,  and  a 
check-blaze  and  mark  made  at  the 
butt,  below  where  the  stump-cut  will 
be  made.  In  making  the  check-blaze  a 
chip  of  bark  is  removed  and  the  blaze 
stamped  with  the  "die"  on  the  head 
of  the  marking  axe.  Means  are  thus 
afforded  to  determine  whether  any 
unmarked  trees  have  been  cut. 

There  are  numerous  types  of  mark- 
ing axes.  One  type  used  by  the  U.  S. 
Forest  Service  is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 
The  mark  consists  of  the  raised  letters 
U.  S.  When  a  special  axe  is  not  avail- 
able a  substitute  may  be  made  from  a 
shingle  hatchet  by  cutting  a  letter  or 
other  mark  on  the  hammer. 

In  marking  timber  one  works  over  a  given  stand  in 
progressive  strips.  The  blazes  are  made  on  the  side  of 
the  trees  facing  the  outside  edge  of  the  strip.  Thus,  if 
the  strips  run  north  and  south  and  progress  east,  the 
blazes  nre  on  the  east  side  of  the  trees.  This  enables  the 


FIG.   14.— Mark- 
ing Axe. 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  59 

marker  to  see  the  trees  already  blazed.  Sometimes  the 
trees  are  blazed  on  two  sides. 

A  very  rapid  and  convenient  method  of  marking  is  to 
use  a  crew  of  three  men,  with  one  man  to  indicate  the 
trees  and  the  other  two  to  make  the  marks.  Frequently 
two  or  more  men  work  together  in  a  line,  each  selecting 
and  marking  trees.  This  method  requires  that  each 
be  a  skilful  marker,  and  is  ordinarily  more  expensive 
than  that  of  using  one  expert  with  one  or  more  un- 
skilled blazers. 

The  cost  of  marking  varies  enormously.  The  first 
work  of  marking  in  a  forest  is  more  expensive  than  later 
marking,  done  after  the  markers  have  been  trained  to 
the  details  of  the  work.  At  first  the  marking  must  be 
done  by  an  experienced  forester.  Frequently,  he  can 
later  turn  the  work  over  to  a  competent  ranger  and 
direct  the  work  by  occasional  inspection,  and  thus  reduce 
the  cost. 

In  this  country  the  cost  of  marking,  in  selection 
forests,  has  so  far  varied  from  2.5  to  10  cents  for  each 
thousand  board  feet  marked. 

The  cost  of  marking  depends  on  the  following  factors: 

1.  Size  of  the  Operation. — In  general,  the   average 
cost  per  unit  of  volume  of  timber  cut  for  marking  is  in 
inverse  ratio  to  the  size  of  the  area  marked. 

2.  Yield. — The  larger  the  yield   per  acre  and   the 
larger  the  contents  of  the  individual  trees,  the  smaller 
the  unit  cost  of  marking. 

3.  Skill  of  the  Marker. — An  experienced  marker  can 


60  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

select    the  trees   more   rapidly  and   hence   mark  more 
cheaply  than  an  unskilled  man. 

4.  Simplicity  of  Silviculture. — The  simpler  the  prob- 
lem, the  more  rapid  the  selection  of  the  trees. 

5.  Ease  of  Mechanical  Work. — A  marking  crew  can 
work  faster  when  travel  is  easy,  when  the  trees  can  be 
readily  seen  at  some  distance,  and  when  the  trees  are 
easily  blazed,  than  under  the  opposite  conditions. 

Defects  of  a  Rigid  Diameter  Limit 

In  the  northeastern  woods  it  has  been  for  a  good 
many  years  customary  for  lumbermen  to  restrict  their 
cuttings  to  the  largest  trees.  They  set  a  diameter  limit, 
and  instruct  the  cutting  crews  to  take  only  trees  above 
that  size.  All  merchantable  timber  above  the  limit  is 
cut,  and  none  below,  except  such  as  may  be  required  in 
the  logging  operations.  It  is  assumed  that  there  is  a 
supply  of  medium-sized  timber  which  will  constitute  the 
next  cut.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  often  a  deficiency 
of  thrifty  trees  just  below  the  diameter  limit  capable  of 
growth,  and  not  uncommonly  a  large  number  of  these 
are  cut  for  skids,  bridges,  and  other  purposes  in  log- 
ging the  mature  timber. 

^  Cutting  to  a  fixed  diameter  limit  disregards  entirely 
the  condition  of  the  trees  from  the  standpoint  of  health 
and  possibilities  of  growth.  The  theory  of  the  whole 
plan  is  that  there  are  half-grown  trees  which  will  in  a 
short  time  grow  to  full  merchantable  size.  There  are, 
however,  in  every  virgin  forest  many  trees  below  the 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  61 

diameter  limit  which  are  old,  and  will  produce  little 
growth,  and  may  not  live  or  remain  sound  till  the  next 
time  the  area  is  cut  over.  Naturally  these  trees  ought 
to  be  cut  anoT  utilized.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
many  trees  just  above  the  diameter  limit  which  are  grow- 
ing very  rapidly,  and  which  it  would  be  good  business 
policy  to  leave  standing. 

Those  practising  this  rigid  method  assume  that  repro- 
duction will  take  care  of  itself.  Under  the  scheme  of 
cutting  to  a  rigid  diameter  limit,  this  will  not  be  the 
case.  vln  a  great  many  openings  reproduction  of  the 
species  desired  will  fail  entirely,  because  of  the  removal 
from  the  neighborhood  of  all  trees  capable  of  bearing 
seed.  As  the  work  is  usually  conducted,  a  large  amount 
of  the  small  growth  is  injured  through  carelessness  in 
logging.  Some  of  this  damage  is  necessary,  but  much 
of  it  is  the  result  of  thoughtlessness.  The  limitation 
of  the  cut,  as  the  rigid  limit  is  applied,  itself  is  often  a 
f a rce^"" "Formerly,  when  only  large  trees  were  merchant- 
able, there  was  little  temptation  to  cut  small  timber. 
The  stumps  were  ordinarily  cut  very  high,  and  a  rough 
rule  was  sufficient  to  prevent  the  choppers  from  taking 
trees  below,  say,  12  inches  on  the  stump.  Under  present 
conditions  a  12-inch  limit  measured  on  the  stump  is  a 
different  matter,  because  the  trees  are  sawed  and,  with 
good  logging  methods,  the  stump-cut  is  well  within 
the  root  swelling.  A  12-inch  limit  now  is  equivalent 
to  about  a  10-  or  11-inch  limit  under  the  old  regime. 
It  is  seldom  that  the  felling  crew  is  required  to  measure 


62  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  trees  before  cutting,  while  inspection  is  very  lax,  so 
that  even  when  a  company  has  the  best  intentions  the 
plan  fails  to  be  properly  carried  out. 

Another  defect  of  the  rigid  diameter  limit  plan  is 
that  the  limit  itself  is  determined  very  largely  by 
guesswork  and  tradition.  A  12-inch  limit  under  certain 
conditions  may  be  conservative,  from  the  standpoint  of 
leaving  the  forest  in  a  fairly  productive  state.  In  other 
conditions  an  owner  may  be  deceiving  himself  as  to  the 
rate  of  production  after  cutting.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  is  exactly  what  is  constantly  happening.  In  many 
cases  the  owners  have  entirely  overestimated  the  yield 
capacity  of  the  forest  under  their  method  of  treatment; 
and  in  the  case  of  large  corporations  which  are  counting 
on  an  indefinite  production  this  will  be  a  serious  matter. 
It  would  be  wise  business  policy  for  such  owners  to  deter- 
mine what  their  forests  can  produce  under  a  proper  selec- 
tion system,  and  then  practise  that  system  in  the  manner 
indicated  in  the  foregoing  secticn,  so  as  actually  to  secure 
the  production  desired. 

Provision  for  Reproduction 

^  In  the  management  of  a  selection  forest  the  aim  is  to 
secure  prompt  reproduction  of  a  suitable  species  in  the 
openings  made  in  lumbering.  In  some  forests,  trees  of 
intermediate  size,  capable  of  bearing  seed,  are  so  well 
distributed  that  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  leave  any  large 
trees  for  this  special  purpose.  In  other  cases  the  inter- 
mediate seed-bearing  trees  are  scanty  or  not  always  prop- 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  63 

er!y  located,  so  that  some  provision  for  seed  distribution 
must  be  made  from  among  the  old  timber. 

Then,  again,  in  mixed  forests  the  intermediate  trees 
near  an  opening  may  not  be  of  the  species  most  desired. 
The  forester  must  endeavor  to  secure  a  distribution  of 
seed  by  leaving  seed-trees  properly  located.  In  leaving 
a  seed-tree  above  the  diameter  limit,  one  must  bear  in 
mind  that  it  involves  an  actual  investment,  for  the  tree 
might  otherwise  be  taken  out  and  sold.  If  the  tree  is 
salable  now,  but  will  not  be  so  at  the  next  cut,  one  in- 
vests its  value  in  reproduction.  If  it  is  sound  now,  and 
likely  to  remain  so  till  the  next  cut,  it  is  merely  a  ques- 
tion of  deferred  profits.  In  any  case,  one  must  be  cer- 
tain that  a  special  seed-tree  is  required,  and  that  it  will 
answer  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  left. 

Successful  reproduction  depends  not  only  on  a  prop- 
er distribution  of  seed,  but  also  on  the  conditions  for 
germination,  and  for  the  development  of  seedlings.  The 
problem  is  very  simple  with  tolerant1  species,  for  these 
are  able  to  grow  in  very  small  openings,  and  often  a  good 
reproduction  is  already  established  where  the  openings  are 
to  be  made.  With  intolerant  species,  on  the  other  hand, 
special  measures  often  have  to  be  taken  if  they  are  to  be 
reproduced  successfully.  If  such  measures  are  not  taken, 
other  more  tolerant  species  may  occupy  the  opening  to 
their  exclusion.  The  opening  must  be  large  enough  not 
only  to  give  the  trees  a  start,  but  also  to  allow  them  to 
make  straight  and  thrifty  growth.  It  is,  therefore,  some- 

J  Tolerant  species  are  those  capable  of  enduring  more  or  less  neavy  shade. 


64  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

times  desirable  to  enlarge  an  opening  beyond  what  is 
necessary  to  remove  a  single  mature  tree.  In  such  a 
case  one  would  aim  to  cut  several  trees  in  a  group; 
and  in  so  doing  it  would  often  be  necessary  to  cut  trees 
under  the  diameter  limit.  Usually,  however,  this  can 
be  done  without  cutting  medium  trees  of  large  promise. 

Protection  from  Windfall 

Very  commonly  a  selection  cutting  would  result  in 
windfall  among  the  trees  left  standing  unless  this  point 
is  regarded  in  the  location  of  the  trees  to  be  cut.  Some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  cut  whole  groups  clear,  often  as 
large  as  an  acre,  because  they  cannot  be  thinned  without 
windfall.  In  many  cases  a  tree,  or  group  of  trees,  above 
the  diameter  limit  must  be  left  standing  to  protect  the 
surrounding  stand. 

Cutting  Small  Trees  for  Improvement 

""The  struggle  for  space  in  a  selection  forest  is  very 
great.  The  old  trees  overtop  and  crowd  those  coming 
up  between  and  below  them;  the  middle-aged  trees 
crowd  and  suppress  the  younger  ones,  while  all  the 
competing  trees  are  crowding  one  another.  A  poorly 
developed  tree  of  small  promise  may  often  injure 
several  trees  of  better  form  and  species.  *  The  removal 
of  such  poor  trees  greatly  increases  the  total  growth 
of  the  stand. 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  65 

Influence  of  Market  Conditions 

The  principles  given  in  the  foregoing  are  subject  to 
restrictions  in  their  practical  application  imposed  by  poor 
market  conditions. 

H  In  the  first  place,  it  may  happen  that  only  a  certain 
number  of  the  species  are  merchantable.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  Adirondacks  there  are  certain  areas  where  a 
number  of  the  hardwood  species  cannot  be  marketed  at 
all.  Sometimes  the  best  individuals  of  a  species  can  be 
cut  at  a  profit,  but  the  crooked  and  defective  trees  are 
not  merchantable.  Ordinarily  it  is  the  merchantable 
species  which  the  forester  desires  to  reproduce.  If  he 
cannot  cut  the  less  desirable  kinds,  he  is  forced  to  leave 
the  ground  practically  in  their  possession  for  reproduc- 
tion. This  will  result  in  a  reduction  in  the  proportion 
of  the  best  species.  fc  There  is,  however,  no  alternative 
except  to  wait  for  a  market,  and  this  is  often,  if  not  usu- 
ally, impracticable.  When  such  is  the  case  the  forester 
leaves  the  forest  in  the  best  condition  for  reproduction 
possible  under  the  circumstances,  but  he  must  expect 
that  there  will  be  certain  areas  on  which  the  poor  species 
will  gain  the  upper  hand. 

The  larger  trees  which  cannot  be  sold — because  they 
are  either  of  poor  grade  or  of  poor  species — usually  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  trees  of  better  character.  Their 
removal  would  increase  the  growth  of  the  forest  by  re- 
leasing the  trees  which  they  crowd,  and  replacing  them 
with  reproduction  of  valuable  species.  But  this  would 


66 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.    15. — A  Stand  of  Engelmann  Spruce    after   a   Selection    Cutting-. 
Arapahoe  National  Forest,  Colorado. 


pIG  16.— A  Group  of  Balsam  Firs  Marked  for  Cutting  in  a  Selection 
Forest.  Their  Removal  will  Favor  the  more  Valuable  Spruce.  Arapa- 
hoe Natior.al  Forest,  Colorado 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  67 

be  an  actual  outlay  which  often  would  not  be  justified. 
The  experiment  has  sometimes  been  tried  of  girdling 
these  trees.  Doubtless  this  expedient  would  be  practi- 
cable in  certain  instances  in  public  forests,  but  there  are 
usually  more  important  cultural  operations  which  demand 
the  use  of  whatever  money  there  is  to  devote  to  such 
purposes.  Sometimes  the  danger  of  injury  to  young 
growth  from  the  windfall  of  girdled  trees  would  fully 
offset  the  advantages  secured.  As  a  rule,  therefore,  the 
cutting  or  girdling  on  a  large  scale  of  large,  mature  trees 
which  cannot  be  sold  is  not  advisable. 

A  poor  market  means  that  small  individual  trees  can- 
not be  sold.  *  It  would  be  impossible,  with  a  poor  mar- 
ket, except  at  considerable  expense,  to  cut  all  the  trees 
below  a  diameter  limit  which  are  defective,  unpromising, 
or  interfering  with  reproduction  and  with  the  growth  of 
other  better  trees.  The  amount  of  money  which  can  be 
spent  on  cutting  small  trees  for  these  purposes  depends 
on  the  returns  which  would  result.  The  question  must 
be  worked  out  in  the  same  way  as  any  other  proposed 
investment. 

Cost  of  the  System 

The  cost  of  forestry  with  the  selection  system  de- 
pends on  the  following  factors: 

-  1.  Increased  Cost  of  Logging. — In  any  selection  for- 
est, like  most  of  our  virgin  forests,  the  lumberman  has  to 
go  over  a  good  deal  of  ground  for  the  timber.  If  there  is 
a  further  restriction  of  the  amount  cut  by  limiting  the 
size  to  only  the  largest  trees,  and  by  leaving  seed-trees, 


68  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  cost  of  logging  per  unit  of  volume  is  increased.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  merchantable  trees  left  stand- 
ing are  small,  and  the  profit  from  them  is  insignificant. 
Often  there  is  no  profit  from  tjiem  at  all,  or  there  may 
even  be  actual  loss  in  logging  them.  Thus  the  increase 
in  cost  of  logging  under  the  selection  system  is  so  slight 
that  it  may  practically  be  disregarded. 

Lumbermen  usually  contend  that  the  trouble  to  the 
choppers  in  looking  for  marked  trees  adds  to  cost.  As 
soon  as  the  crews  become  accustomed  to  the  work,  there 
is  no  increased  cost  due  to  this  cause. 
'  2.  Cost  of  Protecting  Young  Growth. — The  felling 
crew  has  to  be  careful  not  to  injure  small  trees  in  felling, 
and  the  skidding  crew  must  avoid  breaking  down  small 
trees  and  barking  those  of  medium  growth.  A  careful 
chopper  does  not  in  any  case  throw  his  tree  into  groups 
of  young  growth;  and  an  intelligent  swamper  always 
avoids  small  trees,  to  save  himself  needless  labor.  An 
unintelligent  crew  will  do  a  great  deal  of  damage.  A 
careful  crew  is  able  to  hold  down  the  damage  to  a  mini- 
mum, without  extra  cost. 

3.  Increased  Cost  of  Construction  Work. — Ordinari- 
ly, a  logger  uses  for  skids,  building  bridges  and  skidding 
roads,  etc.,  the  straight,  well-formed  trees  of  medium 
growth  which  happen  to  be  most  convenient  to  his 
work.  These  are  exactly  the  trees  which  the  forester 
would  save.  If  the  logger  must  go  to  a  greater  distance 
to  secure  this  material,  and  if  it  is  less  easily  handled, 
there  is  a  cost  which  adds  to  the  total  cost  of  lumbering. 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  69 

While    this   item   is    difficult   to    estimate,    it   is    never 
large. 

4.  Value  of  Seed-Trees. — If  seed-trees  are  left  which 
have  a  value  now,  but  will  deteriorate  before  the  next 
cut,  there  is  an  item  of  cost.     Ordinarily,  such  trees  are 
not  left.     Their  total  would  be  so  small  as  to  be  insig- 
nificant in  a  large  operation.     If  thrifty  trees  are  left 
which  will  live  till  the  next  cut  it  is  an  investment  com- 
parable to  that  of  leaving  the  small  merchantable  trees. 
The  increase  of  stumpage  price  will  often  more  than 
cover  the  investment,  even  if  there  should  be  no  increase 
in  volume  by  growth. 

5.  Cost  of   Improvement  Work. — Under  this  head 
are  comprised  special  measures  to  aid  reproduction,  and 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  small  trees.    Usually  this 
investment  is  not  made  at  all.    In  case  of  valuable  species, 
improvement  work  is  often  desirable  and  profitable. 

Intensive  Development  of  the  Selection  System 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  selection  system  is  usually 
the  first  development  of  forestry  in  a  newly  developed 
country.  With  a  virgin  forest  of  selection  form  and  with 
a  market  only  for  the  largest  and  best  trees,  the  lumber- 
man's first  cutting  resembles  a  conservative  selection 
cutting,  even  though  not  designed  by  him  to  be  such. 
With  unfavorable  market  conditions,  the  system  may 
thus  be  applied  in  a  crude  or  primitive  manner.  On  the 
other  hand,  with  good  market  and  logging  conditions  it 
may  be  developed  into  one  of  the  most  highly  inten- 


70  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

sive  of  all  systems,  as  illustrated  in  certain  forests  of 
Europe. 

In  the  primitive  application  of  the  selection  system, 
as  described  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  handicaps  of  mar- 
kets and  transportation  prevent  more  than  a  rough  pro- 
tection and  care  of  the  young  growth.  If  there  is  a 
market  for  all  products  and  a  system  of  permanent  roads, 
the  cutting  cycle  may  be  reduced  even  to  a  single  year. 
The  aim  is  then  to  make  provision,  as  fast  as  the  forest 
permits,  for  a  proper  representation  of  age-classes;  repro- 
duction of  the  right  species  is  secured,  if  necessary,  by 
planting;  improvement  work  is  done  throughout  the 
given  stand,  so  as  to  give  each  tree  the  right  amount  of 
space  for  its  best  development;  deteriorating  trees,  those 
of  poor  form,  and  injured  trees  are  cut  at  the  proper 
time.  In  other  words,  instead  of  handling  the  forest 
under  long  cutting  cycles  and  large  logging  units,  the 
management  is  intensified,  the  units  are  reduced  in  size, 
and  each  stand  is  cut  over  at  frequent  intervals. 

This  intensive  development  of  the  selection  system 
finds  its  expression  in  a  number  of  special  forms  of  appli- 
cation in  Europe.  In  general,  the  tendency  is  to  trans- 
form the  forest  into  the  group-selection  form,  in  which 
each  age-class  occurs  in  groups  instead  of  in  the  single- 
tree arrangement.  The  groups  vary  in  size  from  fifty 
feet  to  several  hundred  feet  across,  are  irregular  in  form 
and  area,  and  their  location  in  relation  to  each  other  is 
irregular;  but  the  aim  is  to  secure  an  equal  aggregate 
area  of  each  age-class  in  each  stand.  This  develop- 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  71 

ment  is  really  a  series  of  even-aged  groups,  instead  of 
larger,  even-aged  stands,  which  means  a  much  more 
intensive  management  if  each  group  is  carefully  handled 
for  its  best  development.  A  prominent  European  for- 
ester, Dr.  Ney,  has  carried  out  this  idea  still  further,  and 
has  merged  the  various  groups  of  each  age-class  together 
in  the  form  of  regular  or  irregular  strips. 

Results  of  the  Selection  System 

The  selection  system  results  in  a  many-aged  form  of 
forest  which  is  well  adapted  to  the  protection  of  moun- 
tain slopes,  because  in  the  management  of  selection  forests 
clearings  are  never  made,  and  a  permanent  soil  cover  is 
maintained.  It  is  a  form  most  admired  from  an  esthetic 
standpoint,  and  hence  well  adapted  to  public  forests  used 
as  recreation  grounds. 

Comparing  two  forests,  of  which  one  has  separate, 
even-aged  stands  of  different  ages,  and  the  other  is 
managed  on  the  selection  system,  writh  trees  of  different 
ages  mingling  together  singly  or  in  groups,  it  is  usually 
held  that  the  growth  of  the  latter  is  the  less.  In  the 
former,  trees  grow  in  even  competition  with  each  other, 
and  without  cover  overhead.  In  the  selection  forest  the 
growth  of  individual  trees  is  retarded,  because  of  the 
shade  either  overhead  or  on  the  side  during  a  large  part 
of  the  tree's  life.  In  the  selection  stand  there  are  a 
very  large  number  of  trees,  because  the  crowns  overlap, 
but  usually  this  advantage  is  not  enough  to  equal 
the  retarding  of  the  growth  by  shading.  There  is  no 


72  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

question  that  with  intolerant  species  the  growth  is  the 
greatest  under  one  of  the  even-aged  systems.  With  tol- 
erant species  and  intensive  management  it  is  probable 
that  as  great  an  increment  can  be  secured  by  the  selection 
system  as  by  any  other. 

The  development  of  the  individual  trees  in  a  selection 
stand  is  somewhat  different  than  in  an  even-aged  stand. 
They  are  apt  to  have  larger  crowns  and  larger  diameters 
than  those  produced  in  even-aged  stands.  Because  of  the 
larger  crowns,  there  is  less  clear  bole  and  the  knots  are 
larger.  The  trees  pass  through  periods  of  retarded  and 
full  growth,  and  hence  the  grain  of  the  wood  is  less  even. 

Choice  of  the  Selection  System 

The  selection  system  is  used  in  forests  where  the  mar- 
ket conditions  are  such  that  only  a  limited  class  of  trees 
can  be  cut  at  a  profit.  It  is  used  in  those  all-aged  forests 
in  which  the  various  sizes  are  represented,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  medium  trees  would  be  less  profitable  than 
saving  them  for  growth  and  later  cutting.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent method  for  the  handling  of  a  woodlot  which  is 
culled  frequently  for  fuel,  poles,  posts,  rails,  and  occa- 
sional sawlogs  for  home  use  and  for  sale.  It  is  the  ideal 
system  for  forests  on  ridges  and  slopes,  where  it  is  im- 
portant to  keep  a  continuous  forest  cover  to  control  run- 
off or  to  prevent  erosion.  It  is  particularly  applicable  to 
forests  composed  of  tolerant  species;  it  may,  however,  be 
used  successfully  with  intolerant  species,  provided  that 
in  making  cuttings  the  openings  are  made  large  enough 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM 


73 


FIG.   17.— Trees   Designated  for   Cutting  under  the   Selection   System. 
Arapahoe  National  Forest,  Colorado. 


74  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

to  secure  reproduction  and  to  permit  the  new  stock  to 
develop. 

It  is  not  applicable  to  even-aged  stands.  As  the 
market  in  a  given  region  improves,  and  as  the  smaller 
sizes  of  trees  and  those  of  inferior  species  become  mer- 
chantable for  fuel  and  other  purposes,  the  tendency  is 
away  from  the  selection  system.  As  intensive  methods 
become  practicable,  the  tendency  is  to  use  one  of  the 
systems  resulting  in  a  clearing  and  an  even-aged  new 
stand,  rather  than  to  use  the  intensive  application  of 
the  selection  system.  This  is  well  seen  in  continental 
Europe.  There,  the  selection  system  is  most  widely  used 
in  the  protection  forests  and  the  less  accessible  regions  of 
the  mountains,  in  which  the  market  is  still  very  poor. 
In  regions  in  which  all  of  the  products  have  commercial 
value  and  the  markets  are  good,  it  is  the  clear-cutting 
systems  and  the  shelterwood  system  which  are  most  used, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  common  form  of  forest  is  even-aged. 

In  this  country  the  better-settled  regions  have  an 
increasing  proportion  of  even-aged  stands  on  the  cut- 
over  lands.  This  is  partly  because  of  the  prevalent 
method  of  cutting,  but  partly  because  fires  have  followed 
cutting  and  made  clearings.  The  second  growth  has 
more  the  character  of  an  even-aged  forest  than  otherwise, 
particularly  among  the  conifers. 

Example  in  the  Spruce  Forests  of  the  Northeast 

The  spruce  forests  of  northern  New  England  and 
New  York  contain  extensive  areas  to  which  the  selection 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  75 

system  is  admirably  adapted.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  rolling  plateau  regions,  such  as  most  of  north- 
ern Maine  and  the  Adirondacks.  In  these  regions  the 
forest  is  almost  altogether  of  a  selection  character,  and 
trees  of  different  ages  are  mingled  together  individually 
and  in  small  groups.  The  natural  form  of  the  forest  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  species  are  tolerant  of 
shade.  These  are  spruce,  hemlock,  fir,  beech,  and  hard 
and  soft  maple.  The  birches  are  very  abundant  species 
and,  though  less  tolerant  than  the  other  trees,  they  can 
still  hold  their  own  in  the  selection  forest.  The  intol- 
erant species,  like  pine  and  larch,  occur  localized,  and 
usually  come  up  on  new-made  land,  on  the  borders  of 
lakes,  and  on  clearings  made  by  windfall  and  fire.  On 
certain  types  of  land  where  windfall  has  been  extensive 
in  the  past,  like  swamps  and  steep  slopes,  there  are 
groups  and  often  whole  stands  of  an  even-aged  character; 
but  the  forest  is  mainly  all-aged. 

Suppose  that  a  privately  owned  tract  in  the  western 
Adirondacks  is  to  be  managed  under  the  selection  sys- 
tem. In  organizing  it,  the  first  step  is  to  analyze  the 
stand  to  determine  for  each  species  the  representation 
and  distribution  of  the  different  size-classes.  This  analy- 
sis shows  the  number  of  sound  trees  of  different  diame- 
ters, and  makes  it  possible  to  determine  what  can  be  cut 
at  a  profit  at  once,  and  what  will  be  left  for  the  formation 
of  a  merchantable  cut  in  the  near  future. 

The  next  step  is  to  determine  the  rate  of  growth  or 
increment  of  the  forest.  It  is  not  the  present  growth 


76  THE    PRINCIILES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


FIG.   18. — A  Stand  in  the  Adirondacks  in   which  there  has 
been  a  Selection  Cutting. 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  77 

which  is  desired,  but  the  growth  of  the  stand  after 
lumbering.  The  forester  therefore  makes  a  study  of 
growth,  which  enables  him  to  predict  the  rate  of  growth 
of  the  middle-sized  trees;  that  is,  those  which  will  be  the 
merchantable  trees  at  the  next  cutting.  In  calculating 
the  number  of  trees  which  will  be  standing  after  the  lum- 
bering, it  is  necessary  to  assume  that  the  lumbering  will 
take  all  trees  above  a  diameter  limit.  Of  course,  the 
rigid  diameter  limit  will  not  be  used  in  the  cutting,  for 
the  reasons  already  explained.  The  trees  cut  below  the 
limit  about  offset  in  volume  those  left  standing  above 
the  limit. 

But  it  is  not  known  in  advance  what  general  average 
limit  is  desirable.  The  forester  therefore  makes  trial 
calculations  of  growth  on  the  basis  of  several  limits. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  spruce  a  superficial  study  shows  that 
the  limit  may  be  below  14  inches,  breast-high.  The 
trees  above  this  size  are  old  and  mature,  and  should 
be  cut  and  utilized  as  soon  as  possible.  Moreover,  a 
higher  limit  would  ordinarily  not  yield  a  profitable  cut. 
One  can  readily  see  that  a  cut  below  10  inches  would 
deplete  the  pole-class  so  severely  that  the  production  of 
the  forest  would  be  reduced  by  an  excessive  amount. 
Hence  the  forester  makes  trial  computations  of  the 
rate  of  growth,  assuming  a  cut  first  to  10,  then  to  12, 
and  then  to  14  inches. 

A  comparison  of  the  various  possible  limits,  and  the 
possible  present  and  future  returns,  together  with  a  con- 
sideration of  the  problem  of  reproduction,  enables  the 


78  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

forester  to  fix  the  most  desirable  limit.  In  the  supposed 
case  in  the  Adirondacks,  all  conditions  show  that  12 
inches  is  the  desirable  average  limit  for  spruce.  This 
corresponds  to  an  average  age  limit  of  about  185  years. 
The  growth  after  cutting  will  be  approximately  110 
board  feet  per  acre  per  annum,  compared  with  about  70 
feet  if  10  inches  had  been  chosen  as  the  diameter  limit. 

The  other  species  are  studied  in  the  same  way,  and 
an  average  diameter  limit  is  determined  which  will  meet 
all  requirements. 

If  all  species  are  merchantable,  one  makes  selections 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  explained  on  page  56. 
Trees  above  the  established  diameter  limit  would  be  cut, 
except  where  needed  for  seed  or  some  other  special  pur- 
pose. Trees  below  the  limit  would  be  left  standing, 
except  when  they  are  defective,  or  interfere  with  better 
individuals,  or  have  reached  their  limit  of  growth,  or  are 
of  poor  species  likely  to  seed  up  openings,  or  for  any 
other  reason  would  benefit  the  stand  by  their  removal. 

Unfortunately,  at  the  present  time  some  species  are  not 
merchantable.  In  the  Adirondacks  it  is  often  the  case 
that  only  the  spruce  and  the  best  individuals  of  hemlock, 
of  fir,  and  of  some  of  the  hardwoods  are  merchantable. 
There  is  no  market  for  the  defective  and  crooked  hard- 
woods, or  for  those  small  trees  whose  removal  would 
benefit  the  stand. 

The  forester  is  therefore  in  the  position  of  having  to 
restrict  his  cuttings  to  the  choicest  trees  in  the  forest. 
Many  poor  species  are  left  which  will  distribute  seed  in 


THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM  79 

the  openings,  and  thereby  compete  in  the  next  crop  with 
the  better  species.  Defective  trees  occupying  the  ground 
prevent  reproduction  by  their  shade,  or  they  may  be 
crowding  and  injuring  valuable  individuals.  The  result 
is  that  in  some  instances  the  poorer  species  will  increase 
in  the  reproduction.  In  some  types  of  forest  the  hard- 
woods will  crowd  out  the  spruce,  while  occasionally  soft 
maple  or  beech  replace  the  better  birch  and  hard  maple. 
Not  only  will  the  reproduction  be  of  poorer  quality  than 
would  be  the  case  if  the  markets  were  favorable,  but,  on 
account  of  the  impracticability  of  releasing  crowded  trees, 
the  growth  in  the  immediate  future,  as  well  as  in  the 
long  run,  will  be  less. 

Under  these  conditions  there  are  two  alternatives: 
first,  to  defer  cutting  altogether  and  wait  for  better  mar- 
kets, w7hen  the  cuttings  under  the  selection  system  or 
some  other  one  can  be  conducted  in  a  better  way  than  at 
present;  second,  to  carry  out  the  cuttings  in  the  best 
manner  possible  under  the  present  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, with  the  full  realization  that  the  future  returns  will 
be  somewhat  less  than  would  be  obtained  by  more  inten- 
sive work.  In  some  cases  it  would  be  wise  on  State  land 
to  defer  the  cuttings  for  a  better  market.  The  State  is 
not  obliged  to  pay  interest  on  investments,  and  can  afford 
to  hold  the  timber  for  later  realization. 

Most  private  owners,  however,  cannot  afford  to  hold 
their  valuable  timberlands  wilhout  returns  for  a  long 
time.  They  wish  to  realize  something  now,  and  to 
reduce  the  investment  in  the  forest,  which,  even  under 


80  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

our  best  conditions,  is  exposed  to  considerable  risk  from 
fire.  The  policy  is,  then,  to  cut  among  the  merchant- 
able trees,  with  a  view  to  leaving  the  forest  in  as  good 
condition  as  possible  for  increment  and  for  reproduction. 
Under  the  conditions  assumed,  the  forester  has  in 
mind  the  following  general  principles  in  marking  the 
trees  for  cutting: 

1.  The  following  average  diameter  limits  are  used  as 
a  guide  in  the  marking: 

For  spruce 12  inches 

Forfir 10      " 

For  hemlock 12      " 

For  birch,  beech,  and  hard  maple ...  16 

For  soft  maple 12 

2.  All  trees   above    these  respective  limits  are    cut, 
except  those  needed  for  seed  or  for  some  other  special 
purpose. 

3.  All  trees  below  the  limit  are  left  standing,  except 
such  merchantable  trees  as  are  growing  very  slowly  and 
will  not  live  till  the  next  cut. 

4.  Trees   which  are  not   over  3   inches  larger   than 
the  diameter  limit,  and  which  are  growing  very  rapidly 
and  obviously  increasing  in  value  at  a  rapid  rate,  should 
not  be  marked. 

5.  Very  old  and  slow-growing  trees  which  are  below 
the  limit,  but  are  incapable  of  increasing  their  growth 
after  release,  should  be  marked,  unless  needed  for  some 
special  purpose. 


THE   SELECTION    SYSTEM  81 

6.  All  trees  certain  to   be   blown   down  should  be 
marked. 

7.  Trees  likely  to  be  destroyed  or  seriously  injured 
in  lumbering  should  be  marked. 

8.  It  is  occasionally  necessary  to  leave  trees  above  the 
limit,  if  their  removal  would  result  in  serious  windfall. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  hardwoods. 

9.  In  leaving  special  trees  for  seed,  spruce  and  white 
pine  should  be  favored  over  all  the  other  species,  and 
hard  maple  and  birch  should  be  favored  over  hemlock, 
beech,  fir,  and  soft  maple. 

10.  A  seed-tree  should  never  be  left  where  it  will 
not  serve  its  purpose.     Thus,  on  hardwood  land  where 
abundant  birch  and  maple  seed-trees  stand,  there  is  little 
use  in  leaving  for  seed  a  spruce  above  the  diameter  limit. 

11.  In  selecting  seed-trees,  only  such  as  have  a  well- 
developed  crown  and  are  now  capable  of   bearing  seed 
should  be  left. 

12.  In  choosing  between  trees  for  seed,  each  of  which 
will  serve  the  purpose  equally  well,  the  smallest  should 
be  chosen. 

13.  Do  not  leave  seed-trees — 

a.  Which  will  be  blown  down. 

b.  Which   will    be   broken    or    destroyed   in   log- 

ging- 

c.  Which  are  likely  to  be  cut  for  lumbering  pur- 

poses. 

d.  Which  must  be  cut  to  make  way  for  a  logging 

road  or  skid  way. 


82  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

14.  Seed-trees  above   the  limit   are  left  only   where 
there  are  none  below  the  limit  to  answer  the  purpose. 

15.  One  or  more  trees  of  the  species  capable  of  bear- 
ing seed  should  be  left  on  the  border  of  every  opening 
1  $  feet  or  more  in  width. 

16.  In  openings  resulting  from  the  cutting  of  a  group 
of  trees,  and  50  feet  or  more  wide,  seed-trees  should  be 
located  on  the  side  toward  the  prevailing  wind. 

17.  In  case  an  opening  is  on  a  slope,  the  seed-trees 
should  be  located  above  rather  than  below  the  opening. 


CHAPTER  III 

SYSTEMS   OF   CLEAR-CUTTING 

Definition  of  Clear-Cutting 

A  CLEAR-CUTTING  occurs  on  a  given  area  when  all  of 
the  trees  are  removed,  or  at  least  such  a  large  proportion 
of  them  that  those  which  remain  do  not  materially  affect 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  new  stand.  A  clear- 
cutting  may  be  contrasted  to  those  systems  of  cutting  in 
which  at  any  given  time  the  stand  is  culled  by  the  re- 
moval here  and  there  of  a  tree  or  group  of  trees,  and 
there  remains  after  the  cutting  a  sheltering  cover  which 
influences,  advantageously  or  otherwise,  the  new  stand. 

A  given  stand  may  be  cleared  either  in  one  operation 
or  gradually  in  a  series  of  operations,  each  of  which  has 
the  character  of  a  clear-cutting.  In  the  latter  case  a  short 
period  usually  elapses  between  the  cuttings.  The  whole 
stand  is,  however,  cleared  within  a  limited  time,  usually 
not  over  20  years.  There  are  certain  exceptions  to  this 
principle,  which  are  described  under  the  different  meth- 
ods of  clear-cutting  with  natural  reproduction. 

Conditions  Requiring  Clear-Cutting 

The  popular  impression  is  that  the  practise  of  forestry 
consists  of  thinning  the  forest  in  the  manner  described 

83 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.   19.— A  Stand  of  Douglas  Fir  and    Cedar  of  Great  Size  and  Age. 
A  System  of  Clear-Cutting  is  Required.     Washington. 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  85 

for  the  selection  system.  The  method  of  culling  only 
the  largest  trees  and  leaving  the  smaller  ones  is,  however, 
applicable  only  to  stands  having  trees  of  different  ages 
mingled  together.  In  handling  a  stand  in  -which  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  trees  are  mature,  the  design  is  to  remove 
the  whole  stand,  and  replace  it  with  new  growth  in  as 
short  a  time  as  is  feasible.  This  is  accomplished  either 
by  one  of  the  clear-cutting  or  one  of  the  shelterwood 
systems. 

The  conditions  requiring  a  clear-cutting  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.  Where  there  is  danger  from  windfall.     Such  a  con- 
dition is  found  in  mature  coniferous  forests  which  are 
growing  on  steep  slopes  and  ridges  in  the  mountains. 
For  example,  the  spruce  stands  growing  on  the  exposed 
slopes  in  the  mountains  of  northern  New  England  and 
New  York  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  heavily  thinned,  because 
the  trees  left  standing  would  be  almost  certain  to  be  up- 
rooted by  the  wind.      In  most  cases,  however,  a  very  light 
thinning,  such  as  could  safely  be  made,  would  not  pay, 
so  that  some  system  of  clear-cutting  is  necessary. 

Conspicuous  examples  of  the  same  principle  are  found 
in  the  mountains  of  the  West.  The  lodgepole  pine  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  grows  at  high  elevations  in  exposed 
situations.  The  stands  are  usually  regular  in  form  and 
the  trees  long  and  slender,  with  shallow  lateral  roots. 
Attempts  to  thin  mature  stands  of  lodgepole  pine  have, 
in  many  cases,  resulted  in  heavy  windfall. 

2.  Where  all  the  trees  are  large  and  mature,  and  prac- 


86  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

tical  considerations  of  logging  require  a  concentration  of 
cutting. 

3.  Where  the  trees  are  so  large  that  their  removal 
after  reproduction  is  established  would  result  in  destruc-. 
tion  of  the  young  growth. 

4.  Where  the  trees  are  so  large  and  valuable  that  their 
retention  for  seed  would  involve  a  greater   investment 
than  artificial  planting. 

5.  Where  a  clearing  is  necessary  to  remove  trees  of 
undesirable  form  or  poor  species,  in  order  to  establish 
artificially  better  species. 

6.  Where  a  clearing  is  necessary  to  secure  good  nat- 
ural reproduction  of  some  species  which  cannot  thrive 
under  shelter. 

Frequently  a  clear-cutting  is  required  by  a  combina- 
tion of  the  conditions  just  enumerated.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Washington  a  stand  of 
red  fir,  cedar,  and  hemlock  from  400  to  800  years  old, 
with  trees  from  4  to  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  200 
to  250  feet  high,  presents  the  conditions  of  overmatu- 
rity  of  all  trees,  great  expense  of  logging,  and  the  im- 
possibility of  removing  trees  without  injury  to  young 
growth.  It  is  obvious  that  under  such  conditions  a 
clear-cutting  is  necessary. 

Disadvantages  of  a  Clear-Cutting 

There  are  certain  disadvantages  attendant  on  the  clear- 
cutting  system,  as  follows: 

1.    In  any  clear-cutting  system  there  is  necessarily  a 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  87 

period  in  which  the  soil  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
elements.  Even  if  the  new  stand  is  started  at  once  after 
cutting,  a  number  of  years  must  elapse  before  the  canopy 
is  closed  and  the  soil  shaded.  There  may  be  a  deteriora- 
tion which  influences,  at  least  temporarily,  the  growth  of 
the  stand. 

2.  On  slopes  the  exposure  of  the  soil  after  the  clear- 
ing may  result  in  more  or  less  serious  erosion. 

3.  Grass,    brush,  and  weeds    spring   up  readily  on 
clearings    to  a  greater  extent  than  under  the  shade  of 
trees.     This  undesired  vegetative  cover  interferes  with 
reproduction,  and  competes  with  the  young  growth. 

4.  The  young  trees  are  exposed  to  drying  by  sun  and 
wind. 

5.  In  certain  localities  the  young  growth  suffers  from 
frost. 

6.  The  young  growth  is  apt  to  be  more  damaged  by 
insects  than  when  it  starts  under  shelter. 

The  disadvantages  of  clear-cuttings  are  in  direct  ratio 
to  the  size  of  the  clearings.  Many  of  the  evils  of  clear- 
cutting  can  be  obviated  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  area 
clear-cut.  Intensive  forestry  avoids  large  clearings;  and 
when  a  given  stand  of  considerable  size  is  to  be  removed 
under  an  intensive  management,  it  is  cut  in  a  series  of 
operations,  each  confined  to  only  a  portion  of  the  stand. 

Methods  of  Reproduction 

Reproduction  after  clear-cutting  may  be  accomplished 
artificially  by  planting  young  trees,  or  by  sowing  seed;  or 


88  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

it  may  be  accomplished  by  natural  seeding  from  seed- 
trees,  properly  located  for  the  purpose.  Very  com- 
monly, natural  and  artificial  reproduction  are  both  used; 
a  stand  is  reproduced  as  far  as  possible  by  natural 
means,  and  the  areas  incompletely  stocked  are  filled  by 
planting. 

Advantages  of  Artificial  Reproduction. — Contrasting 
the  two  methods,  artificial  reproduction  has  the  following 
advantages: 

1.  The  new  stand  is  established  at   once.     Natural 
reproduction  often  requires  from   5  to   10  years  to  stock 
an  area  with  young  trees. 

2.  Artificial  reproduction  is  more  certain  of  success. 

3.  The  forester  is  able  to  establish  the  species  best 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  best  suited  to  the  requirements 
of  the  market. 

4.  The  trees  m^y  be  given  the  right  amount  of  grow- 
ing space  for  their  best  development.     Natural  reproduc- 
tion is  often  too  dense  or  too  open. 

5.  For  the  reasons  already  given,  the  yield  of  high- 
grade  material  is  usually  greater  from  artificial  than  from 
natural  reproduction. 

Advantages  of  Natural  Reproduction. — On  the  other 
hand,  natural  reproduction  has  the  following  advantages: 

1.  It  is  usually  cheaper  than  artificial  reproduction. 

2.  With  certain  of  the  methods  of  natural  reproduc- 
tion there  is  a  continuous  partial  shelter  over  the  ground, 
and  consequently  less  danger  of  soil  deterioration. 

3.  Natural  reproduction  follows  nature  more  closely, 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  89 

and  is  apt  to  produce  a  mixed  forest,  whereas  the  ten- 
dency of  artificial  reproduction  is  toward  pure  stands, 
which  are  less  desirable  over  large  areas  than  the  former. 

4.  Natural  reproduction  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  rough 
conditions,  like  those  in  this  country,  where  intensive 
methods  are  often  not  practicable. 

Artificial  reproduction  is  necessary  when  it  is  desired 
to  establish  a  species  different  from  any  that  occurs  nat- 
urally on  the  ground.  It  is  necessary  where  seed-trees 
are  not  present  in  proper  location. 

Artificial  reproduction  requires  large  initial  outlay; 
often,  therefore,  it  is  impossible,  even  when  it  would  ob- 
viously be  the  more  profitable  in  the  long  run. 

In  general,  natural  reproduction  will,  for  the  present, 
be  used  chiefly  in  operating  forests  on  a  large  scale  in 
this  country. 

Clear-Cutting  with  Artificial  Reproduction 

Under  this  method  a  specified  stand  is  cut  clear,  and 
the  area  is  restocked  by  planting  or  by  artificial  seeding. 
Ordinarily  the  planting  or  seeding  is  done  after  the  cut- 
ting, and  not  in  advance  of  it.  The  logs  and  other  mate- 
rial are  removed  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  slash  is  dis- 
posed of  by  burning  or  otherwise.  The  ground  is  then 
clear,  and  may  be  restocked  by  setting  out  young  trees  or 
by  sowing  seed. 

It  is  desirable  to  start  the  new  stand  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, in  order  that  there  may  be  no  loss  of  growth,  and 
also  in  order  that  the  new  trees  may  gain  sufficient  head- 


90  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

way  to  compete  with  the  weeds  and  brush  which  inevit- 
ably spring  up  on  clearings. 

Use  of  the  System  in  this  Country. — The  systems  of 
forestry  which  will  be  practised  in  the  United  States  in 
the  immediate  future  will,  for  the  most  part,  be  those 
which  depend  on  natural  reproduction.  The  clear-cut- 
ting system  with  artificial  reproduction  will,  however, 
be  used  under  certain  circumstances,  and  the  use  of  the 
system  will  increase  rapidly  in  the  future,  as  the  oppor- 
tunities to  practise  intensive  forestry  become  more  com- 
mon. The  conditions  under  which  it  will  be  practised 
fall  under  the  following  groups: 

Use  in  National  Forests. — Without  doubt,  there  will 
be  in  the  immediate  future  many  areas  of  public  forests 
in  which  natural  reproduction  of  a  desired  species  will  be 
exceedingly  difficult.  At  the  present  time,  planting  on 
public  lands  is  largely  confined  to  barren  areas.  As  the 
organization  of  the  planting  becomes  more  complete, 
and  as  the  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  planting  is 
perfected,  the  system  will  undoubtedly  be  used  in  re- 
placing mature  stands  where  now  natural  reproduction 
is  chiefly  relied  upon.  It  will  find  an  extensive  applica- 
tion in  certain  forests  of  the  West,  where  the  trees  are 
very  large  and  valuable,  and  where  any  system  of  natural 
reproduction  involves  an  investment  comparable  to  arti- 
ficial reproduction.  Already  in  certain  instances  this  sys- 
tem is  being  used  by  the  Forest  Service  in  cutting  the 
overmature  forests  of  the  Northwest. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  there  is  a  block  of  over- 


SYSTEMS   OF   CLEAR-CUTTING 


91 


FIG.  20.— A  Heavy  Douglas    Fir  Stand    in    Washington,    Calling   for 
One  of  the  Systems  of  Clear-Cutting. 


92  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

mature  old  fir,  hemlock,  or  cedar  covering  an  area  half  a 
mile  wide.  Suppose,  further,  that  it  would  not  pay  to 
log  in  strips  and  patches,  but  only  to  cut  clear  the  whole 
area;  and  suppose,  further,  that  the  only  feasible  way 
to  secure  natural  reproduction  were  to  leave  as  seed- 
trees  large  trees  containing  at  least  2,500  feet  each — very 
common  conditions  on  the  Coast.  There  is  no  question 
that  the  best  method  would  be  to  cut  clear  and  restock 
artificially.  The  Forest  Service  is  using  this  method 
more  and  more.  It  has  been  frequently  possible  to  rely 
on  natural  reproduction,  but  as  the  sales  of  timber  in- 
crease and  the  areas  cut  over  become  larger,  the  artificial 
restocking  will  be  increasingly  used. 

It  is  probable  that  this  system  will  be  applied  in  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  semiarid  region  of  the  West.  For 
example,  in  the  Southwest  there  are  certain  types  near 
and  at  the  edge  of  the  forest  where  reproduction  comes 
exceedingly  slowly.  Frequently  the  present  forest  is  ma- 
ture, and  it  is  desirable  to  make  cuttings  to  utilize  the 
timber  while  it  is  sound.  There  are,  for  instance,  hun- 
dreds of  acres  of  Western  yellow  pine  in  which  the  ma- 
jority of  trees  are  mature,  with  very  little  young  timber, 
and  where  the  conditions  for  reproduction  are  such  that 
it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  the  removal  of  the 
trees  will  be  followed  by  young  growth  within  any  reason- 
able length  of  time.  It  may  be  that  not  less  than  from 
50  to  75  years  will  have  to  be  allowed  for  securing 
adequate  reproduction.  A  period  of  50  years  amounts 
to  fully  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  a  tree  generation. 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  93 

We  may  well  say  that  under  such  circumstances  for- 
estry would  be  unsuccessful,  and  that  it  would  be  betv 
ter  policy  in  a  public  forest  of  this  character  to  resort  to 
artificial  reproduction.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
under  these  difficult  circumstances  certain  areas  will  be 
designated  upon  which  natural  reproduction  is  so  difficult 
and  hazardous  that  a  system  of  restocking  by  artificial 
means  will  be  adopted. 

The  actual  conduct  of  the  work  would  be  governed 
by  local  conditions.  Under  the  circumstances  just  de- 
scribed extensive  clear-cuttings  would  be  dangerous,  for 
if  it  is  difficult  to  secure  natural  reproduction  it  will  also 
be  difficult  to  protect  the  young  trees  from  the  drying 
influences.  There  has  been  little  experience  in  planting 
such  a  tree  as  Western  yellow  pine  under  the  conditions 
in  question.  The  methods  must  be  learned  by  ex- 
periments which  will  also  determine  how  much  shelter  is 
required  by  the  trees  in  youth.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  restrict  clear-cuttings  to  patches  not  over  10  or  15 
acres  in  extent,  or  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  leave  a 
portion  of  the  stand  as  a  shelter  during  the  early  life  of 
the  young  trees.  In  the  latter  case  the  system  of  forestry 
would  no  longer  be  clear-cutting,  but  one  of  the  methods 
of  shelterwood  cuttings  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

Use  in  State  Forests. — There  will  be  in  the  near 
future  main  ureas  within  State  Forests  where  an  intensive 
system  of  forestry  can  be  practised.  In  practically  all 
States  there  will  be  developed  State  nurseries  and  an 
organization  for  planting.  At  first,  just  as  in  the  Xa- 


94  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

tional  Forests,  the  planting  will  be  confined  largely  to 
waste  areas.  Cuttings  will,  however,  be  made  in  the 
mature  portions  of  the  forest,  and  in  some  instances 
a  clear-cutting  will  be  necessary  or  desirable.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  there  is  a  stand  of  25  acres  of  ma- 
ture pine  of  even  age.  This  may  be  located  so  that  a 
system  of  thinning  and  gradual  removal  of  the  trees  can 
be  used.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  much  better 
results  would  be  obtained  by  cutting  the  stand  clear,  and 
restocking  the  area  by  planting.  Under  the  present 
conditions  of  the  market  such  a  system  might  be  finan- 
cially the  best  plan.  Again,  the  timber  might  be  so  lo- 
cated that  any  system  of  thinning  would  be  followed  by 
windfall.  In  such  a  case  it  would  be  necessary  to  make 
the  clear-cutting  and  restock  the  area  either  by  a  natural 
reproduction  from  seed-trees  on  the  edge  of  the  clearing 
or  by  planting. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  areas  acquired  by  the 
State  have  been  badly  damaged  through  unintelligent  and 
reckless  lumbering  in  the  past,  and  are  covered  with 
undesirable  species  or  an  open  stand.  Under  such  con- 
ditions natural  reproduction  might  result  in  a  stand  of  a 
species  which  never  would  have  much  value.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  State  forester  might  be  operating  on  land 
suitable  for  white  pine,  and  yet  be  unable  to  secure 
through  natural  reproduction  anything  but  undesirable 
hardwoods.  Exactly  this  condition  was  met  in  the  Adi- 
rondacks  on  certain  portions  of. the  tract  operated  by  Cor- 
nell University  from  1899  to  1902.  The  tract  had  been 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  95 

cut  over  and  most  of  the  softwoods  removed,  and  the 
land  was  capable  of  producing  pine  and  spruce;  but  nat- 
ural reproduction  would  yield  only  hardwoods.  A  large 
part  of  the  stand  was  of  poor  quality,  and  it  was  found 
that  cuttings  could  be  made  profitable  only  by  removing 
most  of  the  stand.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  the 
best  interests  of  the  State  lay  in  cutting  clear  and  replacing 
the  forest  by  a  new  one  of  softwoods.  This  system  in- 
volved a  large  initial  expenditure,  with  a  view  to  large 
future  returns  in  the  form  of  a  large  yield  of  valuable 
timber.  The  experiment  in  the  Adirondacks  was  the 
first  instance  of  clear-cutting  and  planting  on  a  large  scale 
in  this  country,  even  in  public  forests. 

Use  in  Private  Forests. — It  is  probable  that  the  sys- 
tem of  clear-cutting  with  artificial  reproduction  will  not 
be  practised  on  a  large  scale  by  private  owners  in  the 
United  States  for  a  long  time.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
some  owners  may  supplement  the  work  of  natural  repro- 
duction by  planting,  but  this,  like  other  intensive  sys- 
tems of  forestry,  will  be  chiefly  confined  to  public  owners 
and  to  small  owners. 

The  system  will,  however,  be  used  commonly  on  a 
small  scale.  Owners  of  small  tracts  who  are  interested 
enough  to  practise  forestry  at  all,  are  impatient  to  see 
results.  They  are  not  willing  to  wait  10  or  20  years 
for  natural  reproduction  to  take  place  on  a  clearing. 
The  area  cleared  is  usually  small,  and  the  cost  of  restock- 
ing by  planting  not  large.  Not  uncommonly  the  clear- 
cut  area  would  not  be  over  5  or  10  acres.  When,  for 


96  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

example,  a  private  owner  has  patches  of  matured  trees  of 
a  few  acres  each,  much  the  simplest  plan  is  to  clear-cut 
and  replant.  An  example  ot  this  condition  is  found  in 
the  lands  owned  by  the  New  Haven  Water  Company, 
and  operated  by  the  Yale  Forest  School.  An  area  of  2 
acres  of  old  hardwood  timber  was  cut  clear  and  restocked 
artificially  with  white  pine.  The  total  cost  of  planting 
was  about  $16.  The  ground  had  run  wild,  and  it  would 
have  been  impossible  to  secure  anything  more  than  a 
meager  stand  of  hardwoods  through  natural  reproduc- 
tion. In  40  years  the  resulting  stand  of  hardwoods  would 
have  yielded  about  20  cords  per  acre,  with  perhaps  10 
per  cent,  of  the  material  suitable  for  ties,  and  a  money 
value  of  perhaps  $30  per  acre.  A  pine  plantation  will 
yield  in  40  years  material  worth  at  least  $150  per  acre. 
Such  an  investment  is  worth  while  for  a  permanent 
concern  like  a  water  company. 

In  many  woodlots  there  are  stands  composed  of  poor 
species,  or  of  trees  of  poor  form  and  quality.  Where 
the  material  can  be  utilized,  the  best  system  of  forestry  is 
to  clear-cut  such  stands  and  replace  them  artificially  by  a 
new  growth  of  valuable  species. 

As  the  knowledge  of  tree  planting  progresses,  and  as 
private  owners  can  secure  seed  and  young  trees  at  reason- 
able rates,  clear-cutting  with  artificial  reproduction  will  be 
used  more  and  more. 

Clear-Cutting  the  Whole  Stand. — Under  this  method 
a  whole  stand  is  cut  clear  and  the  area  restocked  arti- 
ficially. It  is  the  method  of  clear-cutting  which  will  be 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  97 

most  commonly  used  in  this  country.  In  many  cases  the 
stand  comprises  a  restricted  area,  which  is  cleared  in  one 
year's  operation.  In  other  cases  there  may  be  a  very 
large  stand  of  mature  timber  to  be  cleared,  requiring 
several  years'  consecutive  work  to  finish.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  area  cut  in  a  single  year  is  large,  and  is  not 
comparable  to  the  strips  or  patches  described  in  the  suc- 
ceeding sections. 

Clear-Cutting  in  Strips. — It  has  been  explained  (page 
86)  that  extensive  clearings  are  attended  with  certain 
dangers.  In  order  to  reduce  these  dangers,  the  strip 
clear-cutting  was  devised.  This  consists  of  removing  a 
stand  by  a  series  of  clearings  in  progressive  strips,  each 
relatively  narrow.  After  cutting  a  given  strip  the  new 
growth  is  established,  and  then  several  years  are  allowed 
to  elapse  before  the  next  strip  is  cut.  The  new  stand 
is  in  a  measure  protected  by  the  neighboring  trees,  and 
at  no  time  is  there  a  very  large  clearing  in  any  one 
place.  This  method  is  common  in  Europe.  Its  appli- 
cation in  this  country  will  for  the  present  be  confined  to 
second-growth  woodlots. 

Clear  -  Cutting  in  Patches.  —  Under  this  method 
small  clearings,  more  or  less  irregular  in  size  and  shape, 
are  cut  in  the  stand  and  restocked  artificially.  These 
patches  are  usually  not  over  one-quarter  to  three  acres  in 
extent.  After  several  years  the  clearings  are  enlarged 
by  strips  entirely  surrounding  them;  and  these  are 
promptly  restocked  by  planting.  The  process  continues 
until  the  stand  is  entirely  cleared.  This  is  another 


98  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

European  method  which  will  not  be  used  very   much 
by  us. 

The  principle  of  this  method  is  used  in  combination 
with  other  systems.  Thus,  sometimes  it  is  desired  to 
introduce  a  valuable  species  which  has  some  difficulty  in 
competing  with  the  species  in  mixture.  Patches  are  clear- 
cut  as  above  described,  and  the  valuable  species  planted. 
When  the  young  growth  has  made  a  good  start,  the  rest 
of  the  stand  is  then  removed  by  some  one  of  the  systems, 
and  reproduced  to  the  other  species.  This  modified  plan 
is  used  in  Europe  in  mixed  oak  and  beech  woods  when 
oak  has  to  be  favored  against  the  competing  beech.  The 
oak  is  introduced  in  the  cleared  patches  and  the  beech 
reproduced  naturally  after  the  oak  is  well  established. 

Clear-Cutting  with  Natural  Reproduction 

Under  this  system  a  stand,  or  part  of  a  stand,  is  cut 
clear,  and  the  area  is  restocked  by  natural  reproduction 
from  trees  standing  on  the  border.  The  system  is  used 
where  a  clear-cutting  is  necessary,  and  where  natural 
reproduction  from  the  side  is  possible  and  can  be  accom- 
plished cheaper  than  by  artificial  seeding  or  planting. 

Conditions  of  Success. — The  system  under  considera- 
tion depends,  for  reproduction,  on  natural  seeding  from 
the  sides.  It  is,  therefore,  applicable  to  species  having 
light  seed  that  is  distributed  by  the  wind.  Inasmuch  as 
the  new  stand  must  be  established  in  the  open,  reproduc- 
tion can  be  secured  only  from  species  capable  of  germi- 
nating and  developing  without  shelter.  It  may  happen 


SYSTEMS   OF   CLEAR-CUTTING 


99 


100  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

that  a  given  species  reproduces  itself  best  on  a  clearing, 
but  this  is  not  by  any  means  always  the  case.  If  a  clear- 
ing is  necessary,  and  a  new  stand  of  a  desirable  species 
cannot  be  secured  upon  it  by  natural  reproduction,  plant- 
ing must  be  resorted  to,  or  the  area  sacrificed  to  inferior 
and  undesired  species. 

In  the  past,  where  the  trees  are  all  merchantable,  lum- 
bermen have  usually  cut  clear,  without  regard  to  repro- 
duction. It  is  a  common  opinion  among  them  that 
reproduction  will  take  care  of  itself,  no  matter  how  the 
stand  is  cut,  provided  the  land  is  protected  from  fire.  It 
is  true  that  some  large  clearings  made  by  haphazard  cut- 
ting have  been  reproduced  in  a  marvelous  manner, 
even  where  fire  has  followed.  These  cases  are,  however, 
exceptional.  Ordinarily,  good  reproduction  will  not 
take  place  unless  there  are  seed-trees  near  at  hand  to  pro- 
vide the  seed,  and  the  conditions  for  germination  are 
favorable.  This  means  that  where  clearings  are  made 
and  reproduction  from  the  side  is  relied  upon,  there  must 
be  a  restriction  of  the  area  clear ed,  based  upon  the  distance 
to  which  seed  may  be  carried  in  abundance.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  clearing,  its  form  and  size,  and  the  work  of 
preparing  the  ground  for  reproduction  must  necessarily 
vary  enormously  under  different  conditions. 

Influence  of  Market  Conditions. — With  this  system  a 
distinction  maybe  made  between  its  application  in  virgin 
forests  having  a  large  amount  of  overmature  stock,  with 
unfavorable  market  and  logging  conditions,  and  its  appli- 
cation under  such  favorable  economic  conditions  as  exist 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR- CUTING V 


in  Europe  and  in  the  better-settled  'portions  ^)^this>€t)iP!t-: 
try.  Applying  this  system  is  often  the  first  step  toward 
organized  silviculture  in  a  forest,  and  the  methods  used 
in  the  beginning  may  have  to  be  very  crude  in  compari- 
son with  the  intensive  work  done  in  Europe. 

The  first  factor  determining  the  manner  of  using  the 
system  is  whether  the  timber  in  a  given  stand  can  be 
taken  off  in  a  series  of  clear-cuttings,  each  taking  only 
a  part  of  the  stand,  or  whether  the  conditions  are  such 
that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  bulk  of  the  timber  in  one 
operation. 

There  are  many  areas  on  which  the  conditions  of  log- 
ging are  such  that,  in  order  to  make  a  profitable  opera- 
tion, a  large  part  of  the  timber  must  be  removed  at  one 
cutting.  The  cost  of  road  construction,  installing  the 
logging  equipment,  and  transporting  the  logs,  may  be 
so  great  that  it  would  not  pay  to  restrict  the  cutting  in  a 
given  stand  to  only  SO  or  60  per  cent,  of  the  timber. 

Clear-Cutting  the  Whole  Stand. — The  principle  of 
this  system  is  to  cut  an  entire  stand  clear,  and  rely  for 
reproduction  on  seed  which  may  be  distributed  from 
the  trees  in  the  surrounding  stands.  It  is  presupposed 
that  the  area  of  the  stand  to  be  cleared  is  small  enough 
to  enable  a  generous  scattering  of  seed  upon  it.  It  very 
commonly  happens  that  there  are  blocks  of  old,  valuable 
timber,  requiring  a  clear-cutting,  which  are  surrounded 
by  younger  timber  that  should  be  left  standing  and  that 
will  furnish  an  abundance  of  seed.  This  is  a  very  com- 
mon occurrence  in  the  forests  of  the  extreme  Northwest. 


ERlftCIRLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


/;A,  specific  iilt&traiion  may  be  taken  from  northern 
Washington.  A  given  area  was  swept  by  a  fire  about 
50  years  ago.  Portions  of  the  forest  were  destroyed, 
and  natural  reproduction  filled  them  with  excellent  stands 
of  Douglas  fir.  There  are  to-day  blocks  of  the  old  for- 
est, separated  by  the  young  stands.  This  old  forest  con- 
sists of  Douglas  fir,  cedar,  and  hemlock.  The  trees  are 
from  3  to  6  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  150  to  over  200 
feet  high.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  defect  in  all  the 
species,  the  fir  being  especially  unsound.  A  clear-cut- 
ting is  demanded  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  The  trees  are  deteriorating,  and  public  interests 
demand  that  they  be  utilized  and  the  ground  restocked 
with  a  new,  growing  stand. 

2.  The    timber   is   so    large   that   donkey  and  cable 
logging  is  required,  necessitating  a  large  yield  per  acre 
for  a  profitable  operation,  and  making  it  impracticable 
to  return  a  second  time  for  a  few  trees  per  acre. 

3.  The    trees    are    so    large    that    their  subsequent 
removal    from  among   young   growth   would    result    in 
extensive  destruction. 

4.  The  old  trees  are  so  large  and  valuable  that  the 
leaving  of  over  two  trees  per  acre  would  equal  the  cost 
of  artificial  planting. 

5.  Natural  reproduction  of  Douglas  fir  on  the  coast 
takes  place  best  on  openings  where  the  mineral  soil  is 
exposed. 

The  case  is,  therefore,  simple.     The  blocks  of   old 
timber  are  restricted  in  size.     About  them  are  stands  of 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  103 

Douglas  fir  already  bearing  seed.  The  merchantable  old 
timber  is,  therefore,  cut  clear,  and  the  ground  burned 
over  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 

If  the  area  were  so  large  that  natural  reproduction 
could  not  be  relied  upon,  it  would  be  necessary  to  resort 
to  planting.  Very  often  both  natural  and  artificial  repro- 
duction are  used.  The  old  stand  is  cut  clear,  and  a  rea- 
sonable area  near  the  edge  of  the  clearing  is  left  for  natu- 
ral reproduction,  while  the  center — that  part  beyond  the 
zone  of  good  seed  distribution — is  planted.  A  good 
example  of  this  method  may  be  found  in  a  Government 
cutting  in  Montana.  The  stand  covers  a  valley  bot- 
tom and  the  surrounding  slopes.  The  timber  on  the 
bottom  and  the  lower  slopes  is  very  heavy  white  pine, 
spruce,  larch,  Douglas  fir,  hemlock,  white  fir,  and 
other  species.  On  the  main  slopes  there  is  a  more  or 
Jess  irregular  stand  of  the  same  species.  The  bottom 
and  lower  slopes  must  be  clear-cut;  the  central  and  upper 
slopes  may  be  culled,  partly  on  the  selection  and  partly 
on  the  shelterwood  plan.  For  a  distance  of  about  250 
feet  from  the  seed-trees  left  on  the  central  slopes,  the 
lower  slopes  will  be  left  to  natural  seeding.  The  bot- 
toms will  be  planted. 

Reserving  Blocks  of  Trees. — Where  extensive  areas 
of  very  old  timber  require  clear-cutting,  and  under  con- 
ditions which  at  present  make  artificial  reproduction  im- 
practicable, a  portion  of  the  stand  must  be  left  for  the 
distribution  of  seed.  Very  frequently  it  is  impracticable 
to  leave  single  trees,  or  even  groups  of  trees,  for  seed, 


104  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

because  they  would  be  certain  to  be  damaged  by  wind- 
fall. 

The  best  methods  are  those  of  cleared  strips  de- 
scribed in  later  sections.  But  there  are  cases  where, 
on  account  of  the  logging  conditions,  it  is  not  feasible 
to  leave  standing  40  or  50  per  cent,  of  the  stand,  as  is 
required  by  those  systems.  In  this  event  the  stand 
is  cut  clear,  except  that  solid  blocks  of  timber,  aggre- 
gating from  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  stand,  and  well 
located  with  reference  to  the  distribution  of  seed,  are 
left  standing. 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  operate  in  this  manner,  it  is 
usually  the  expectation  that  it  will  not  be  possible  to 
return  in  a  few  years — after  reproduction  is  established— 
to  cut  the  standing  blocks.  If  this  were  possible,  a  better 
system  of  cuttings  would  usually  be  feasible. 

In  some  instances  no  cutting  will  probably  be  made 
before  the  new  stand  is  ready.  By  that  time  a  portion  of 
the  timber  left  for  reproduction  will  have  died  or  become 
defective.  In  such  a  case  the  timber  which  cannot  be 
used  is  a  sacrifice  to  reproduction,  and  its  original  value 
represents  the  investment  for  that  purpose. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  BLOCKS. — The  blocks  to  be  left 
standing  are  located  with  the  care  and  skill  that  would  be 
used  in  selecting  single  seed-trees  in  the  other  systems. 
In  locating  these  areas  the  following  considerations  are 
kept  in  view: 

1.  They  must  be  large  enough  to  withstand  the  wind. 

2.  They  are  located  so  as  to  distribute  seed  as  far  as 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR-CUTTING 


105 


FIG.  22. — Application  of  a  System  of  Clear-Cutting  with  Large  Blocks  of 
Timber  Reserved  for  Seed.  A  Quarter  Section  in  the  Kaniksu  National 
Forest,  Idaho. 


106  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

possible.     Usually  they  are  located  on  ridges  or  upon 
slopes. 

3.  They  are   sufficiently   close   together  to  insure  a 
distribution  of  seed  between  them.     The  intervals  vary 
from  200  to  500  feet. 

4.  The  youngest  timber  is   selected  which   will  an- 
swer the  purpose  from  the  standpoint  of  reproduction. 
The  younger   the   trees  the   greater   the   proportion  of 
living  trees  at  the  next  cutting  in  the  area. 

5.  One  selects  trees  having  as  small  a  value  as  pos- 
sible,  but  which  will  meet  the  needs  of  reproduction. 
The  purpose  is  to  reduce  the  investment  to  a  minimum. 

AN  ILLUSTRATION  FROM  IDAHO. — An  illustration  may 
be  taken  from  the  forests  of  northern  Idaho.  Here  the 
forest  is  composed  of  white  pine,  larch,  hemlock,  Douglas 
fir,  cedar,  and  white  fir.  An  area  of  mature  forest  is  to 
be  cut,  on  which  nearly  all  the  trees  are  old  and  many 
are  deteriorating.  The  stand  is  past  maturity;  there  is 
loss  of  growth,  and  the  timber  should  be  utilized  at  an 
early  date.  It  is  believed  that  the  pine,  larch,  and 
Douglas  fir  will  reproduce  themselves  readily  on  the  clear- 
ings, and  that  the  cedar,  hemlock,  and  white  fir  will  come 
up -underneath  them.  A  clear-cutting  is  made,  with 
carefully  located  blocks  left  untouched,  where  they  will 
accomplish  the  most  good.  The  arrangement  of  the 
clearings  and  the  blocks  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The 
blocks  of  timber  are  left  chiefly  on  the  upper  slopes  and 
ridges.  Care  is  taken  to  select  such  areas  as  will  be  safe 
from  windfall,  and  will  distribute  seed.  There  is  also 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  107 

the  aim  to  select,  when  possible,  stands  containing  thrifty 
trees,  which  are  likely  to  live  for  from  25  to  50  years. 
In  the  cutting  it  is  desired,  as  far  as  possible,  to  remove 
the  declining  trees  and  those  attacked  by  fungus. 

CHARACTERIZATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM. — The  system  just 
described  is  one  of  temporary  expediency.  As  a  measure 
of  silviculture  it  has  serious  defects,  and  it  should  be 
used  only  where  necessary.  The  chief  defects  are  as 
follows: 

1.  A   considerable    amount    of    excellent    timber    is 
sacrificed    to  reproduction,   with   a  loss  in   the   plan  of 
close  utilization. 

2.  While  reproduction  will  occur,  it  is  problematical 
whether  it  will  be  in  the  amount  and  of  the  form  desired. 
Thus,  in  the  example  cited  another  species  might  seize 
on  areas  planned  for  white  pine.     The  area  cleared  is  so 
large  that  in  many  cases  the  density  will  not  reach  the 
degree  hoped  for. 

3.  The  system  necessitates  the  clearing  in  one  place 
of  a  very  extensive  area.     An  ordinary  operation  would 
cover  two  or  three  sections — from   70  to  85  per  cent, 
clear.     Such  a  clearing  is  not  desirable. 

Reserving  Scattered  Seed-Trees. — This  system  in- 
volves the  removal  of  all  trees  in  a  merchantable  stand, 
except  a  small  number  left  scattered  on  the  clearing  for 
the  distribution  of  seed.  The  essential  characteristics 
which  distinguish  the  method  are: 

1.  There  are  only  a  very  limited  number  of  trees. 

2.  The  trees  are  isolated  and  scattered. 


108          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

3.  The  tiees  are  left  primarily  to  provide  seed. 
REQUIRED  CONDITIONS. — The  conditions  under  which 
this  method  is  applicable  in  practise  are: 

1.  In   mature   stands,    where  a   clear-cutting   is   de- 
sirable. 

2.  With   species   whose   seed   is  distributed   by   the 
wind. 

3.  Where  seed-trees  may  be  found  which  will  not  be 
overturned  by  the  wind  after  lumbering. 

4.  Where  the  ground  may  be  left  in  such  a  condition 
that  the  seed  will  germinate,  and  a  new  stand  become 
established. 

The  system  cannot  be  used,  therefore,  with  hard- 
woods which  have  heavy  seed — like  oak,  beech,  hickory, 
chestnut,  walnut,  etc.  It  cannot  be  used  in  very  dense 
regular  stands  of  trees  growing  in  exposed  situations,  like 
many  areas  of  lodgepole  pine,  of  spruce,  and  of  Douglas 
fir. 

FUTURE  OF  THE  SEED-TREES. — In  projecting  a  cutting 
under  this  plan,  one  must  consider  whether  it  will  be 
possible  to  cut  and  utilize  the  seed-trees  after  reproduc- 
tion has  been  secured,  or  whether  the  conditions  are  such 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  a  second  cutting  for 
them.  The  character  of  trees  selected  would  depend 
very  largely  on  this  point.  The  leaving  of  merchantable 
seed-trees  represents  an  investment.  If  they  can  be  cut 
at  a  second  operation,  after  they  have  performed  their 
function  in  furnishing  reproduction,  the  investment  is 
represented  in  a  higher  cost  of  logging  at  the  second 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR-CUTTING 


109 


FIG.   23. — Thrifty  Standards  Reserved  to  Grow  through  a  Second  Rota- 
tion.     Scotch  Pine  in  Europe. 


FIG.  24. — Reserving  Scattered  Trees  to  Distribute  Seed  after  Lumbering. 
Minnesota  National  Forest. 


110  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

operation,  and  a  loss  of  interest  on  their  value  during  the 
period  of  reproduction.  This  may  be  compensated  by 
increase  in  market  value,  and  in  some  cases  by  the  growth. 
If  one  cannot  return  for  the  seed-trees  after  reproduc- 
tion is  secured,  and  if  the  seed-trees  are  necessarily  old 
and  mature,  it  is  probable  that  they  will  not  live  until 
the  new  stand  is  ready  for  cutting.  The  trees  are  then 
sacrificed  for  reproduction,  and  their  value  represents 
the  principal  item  of  investment  for  that  purpose.  It  is 
obvious  that  one  may  leave  better  trees,  and  more  of 
them,  in  the  first  than  in  the  second  case. 

NUMBER  OF  SEED-TREES. — This  depends  on  a  variety 
of  conditions.  There  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  enough 
trees  to  secure  an  abundant  distribution  of  seed.  Ordi- 
narily the  principle  is  to  leave  just  as  few  trees  as  possi- 
ble. This  is  especially  important  when  it  is  likely  that 
the  trees  will  not  be  utilized  by  a  second  cutting.  The 
forester  determines  the  required  number  by  a  local  study 
of  reproduction.  He  determines  how  far  abundant  seed- 
ing will  take  place  from  individual  trees  of  the  species 
in  question,  taking  into  consideration  their  height  and 
crown  development,  as  well  as  the  conditions  of  site  and 
exposure  to  wind.  The  conditions  of  germination  must 
also  be  considered;  for,  where  these  are  not  favorable,  a 
larger  number  of  seed-trees  should  be  left  than  under 
the  better  conditions. 

In  general,  the  seed-trees  should  stand  not  farther 
apart  than  their  average  height.  Under  the  best  condi- 
tions, they  may  sometimes  be  reduced  to  an  average  of 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  111 

from  3  to  5  trees  per  acre.  More  often,  from  5  to  10 
trees  per  acre  are  necessary  for  good  reproduction. 

CHARACTER  OF  SEED-TREES. — Seed-trees  are  chosen 
for  reproduction,  and  they  must  be  capable  of  performing 
that  function.  A  satisfactory  seed-tree  is  a  wind-firm 
tree,  with  a  full,  thrifty  crown.  Generally  the  tree  with 
a  full,  thrifty  crown  is  the  most  wind-firm  of  the  stand, 
since  root  and  crown  develop  in  harmony.  A  good 
working  rule  is  to  select,  when  possible,  trees  whose 
crowns  take  up  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  the  full  height  of 
the  tree. 

In  selecting  seed-trees  one  must  consider  constantly 
the  question  of  the  investment.  If  the  trees  are  to  be 
sacrificed  to  reproduction,  and  probably  will  not  be  util- 
ized later,  one  chooses  the  least  valuable  trees  which  will 
serve  the  purpose.  The  forester,  therefore,  selects  the 
smallest  trees  which  will  be  satisfactory  distributers  of 
seed.  They  must,  however,  have  full,  thrifty  crowns. 
Suppressed  trees,  trees  with  long  boles  and  short  crowns, 
or  dominant  trees  with  dying  crowns,  will  not  answer  the 
purpose.  If  small  seed-trees  are  wanting,  larger  and  more 
valuable  ones  must  be  left  in  proper  locations. 

There  are  certain  defects  which  unfit  a  tree  for  high- 
grade  lumber,  but  do  not  affect  its  reproductive  power. 
A  knotty  or  a  crooked  tree  may  be  fully  as  good  a  seed- 
tree  as  a  straight  one.  In  fact,  a  knotty  tree  may  be  the 
best  possible  seed-tree,  because  it  usually  has  a  full 
crown.  Other  defects,  like  cat-face,  seams,  sun-scald, 
etc.,  do  not  injure  a  tree  for  reproduction. 


112  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

It  may  be  safe  in  some  cases  to  leave  trees  affected 
with  rot.  Sometimes  those  trees  will  be  left  anyhow,  as 
there  is  no  practical  method  of  disposing  of  them.  If 
the  crowns  are  still  thrifty,  they  will  be  good  seed-trees. 
It  may  be  dangerous,  however,  to  leave  seed-trees  affected 
with  diseases  that  are  likely  to  spread.  In  some  forests, 
for  example,  a  disease  may  have  become  so  prevalent  that 
the  majority  of  trees  of  certain  species  are  infected.  An 
illustration  is  the  diseased  condition  of  the  fir,  hemlock, 
and  pine  in  some  areas  of  northern  Idaho.  It  is  certain 
that  diseased  seed-trees  will  be  liable  to  infect  the  new 
growth,  through  rapid  propagation.  Where  possible, 
therefore,  one  avoids  leaving  trees  inflicted  with  a  disease 
which  is  likely  to  spread  to  the  new  crop.. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SEED-TREES. — The  design  is  to 
have  the  trees  distributed  regularly  over  the  cutting  area. 
The  more  regularly  spaced  the  trees,  the  less  the  required 
number.  It  is  not  always  possible,  however,  to  find  a 
suitable  tree  in  the  precise  location  most  desired.  It  is 
much  more  important  to  have  suitable  trees  than  a  regu- 
lar distribution. 

THE  CUTTING. — The  whole  stand  is  cut  clear,  except 
for  the  reserved  trees.  The  slashings  are  disposed  of  as 
described  in  Chapter  VII — either  piled  and  burned,  or, 
where  the  conditions  demand  it,  cut  up  and  scattered. 
Any  individuals  or  groups  of  small  trees  which  have 
started  as  advance  growth  are  carefully  protected  in  the 
operation. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. — It  is  essential  that  the 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  113 

soil  be  in  a  condition  for  the  ready  germination  of  the 
seed  and  for  the  growth  of  the  seedlings.  Frequently 
there  is  a  heavy  layer  of  litter  which  retards  germination, 
or  a  dense  growth  of  weeds  and  brush  which  interferes 
with  the  development  of  the  young  seedlings.  Ordi- 
narily the  best  plan  is  to  destroy  this  material  by  surface 
burning.  The  ground  is  burned  over  preferably  during 
a  seed  year.  This  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  seed  to 
germinate,  and  for  the  young  seedlings  to  gain  headway 
and  compete  successfully  with  other  vegetation. 

RESULTS. — The  scattered  seed-tree  method  produces 
excellent  results  in  reproduction  where  there  is  little  com- 
petition for  the  occupancy  of  the  ground  by  other  species, 
where  there  is  little  injury  to  young  growth  by  competing 
brush  and  weeds,  and  where  the  soil  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  the  germination  and  continued  life  of  the  young 
seedlings.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  securing  an  adequate 
distribution  of  seed  over  the  cleared  ground,  for  that  is 
merely  a  matter  of  properly  locating  a  sufficient  number 
of  seed-trees.  The  difficulty  is  entirely  in  securing  the 
germination  of  the  seed  and  the  protection  of  the  seed- 
lings. Where  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  the 
germination  and  growth  of  the  seedlings,  the  system 
inevitably  yields  poor  results.  In  some  situations  a 
heavy  opening  in  the  forest  is  followed  by  a  drying  out 
of  the  soil.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  semiarid 
regions  of  the  West.  In  the  same  way,  reproduction 
under  this  system  is  apt  to  be  a  failure  where  there  is 
danger  of  damage  by  frost.  In  a  mixed  forest  other 


114  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

species  are  apt  to  compete  in  the  new  growth,  and  retard, 
or  in  some  cases  entirely  prevent,  reproduction  of  the 
desired  species.  Thus,  in  a  mixed  forest  of  white  pine 
and  hardwoods,  hardwood  trees  very  commonly  form  the 
bulk  of  the  second  growth  after  a  clearing,  even  where 
abundant  seed-trees  of  white  pine  have  been  left  standing. 

If  good  reproduction  is  secured,  the  new  stand  is 
essentially  even-aged.  If  the  seed-trees  are  not  cut  after 
reproduction,  they  are  so  scattered  that  they  do  not  inter- 
fere in  a  material  way  with  the  development  of  the  new 
stand. 

The  investment  is  usually  small.  The  value  of  the 
trees  left  standing  is  under  most  circumstances  not  over 
$2  to  $5  per  acre.  Sometimes,  however,  the  system  is 
used  in  a  virgin  forest  where  the  only  adequate  seed-trees 
have  considerable  merchantable  value.  If  the  trees  are 
very  valuable,  the  probabilities  are  that  it  will  pay  to 
come  back  for  them  in  a  second  cutting  after  they  have 
accomplished  their  reproductive  function.  If  it  is  im- 
possible to  return  for  them,  and  they  are  very  valuable,  it 
would  not  pay  to  use  the  system  at  all.  In  general,  the 
results  in  reproduction  are  so  uncertain  that  it  would  not 
pay  to  use  this  system  where  the  investment  in  securing 
reproduction  would  be  over  $3  to  $5  per  acre. 

PRACTICAL  APPLICATION. — The  system  has  already 
been  used  in  this  country  in  a  number  of  instances.  The 
work  conducted  on  the  largest  scale  is  that  on  the  Min- 
nesota National  Forest.  This  area  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Chippewa  Indians.  When  the  land  was  relinquished 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  115 

by  them  and  ceded  to  the  United  States,  provision  was 
made  by  statute  that  in  cutting  the  pine  timber  5  per 
cent,  was  to  be  left  standing  as  seed-trees.  A  later  statute 
required  that  the  amount  left  for  seed  be  10  per  cent. 
The  forest  was  by  no  means  regular,  and  in  some  places 
the  cutting  has  left  several  seed-trees  to  the  acre,  and  in 
others  only  one  seed-tree  to  from  three  to  five  acres. 
There  was  no  special  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the 
cuttings  were  made  without  regard  to  seed  years. 

The  results  have  not  been  very  satisfactory,  first,  be- 
cause there  are  not  enough  seed-trees,  and  second,  because 
the  ground  has  been  covered  with  a  growth  of  brush  which 
interferes  with  reproduction.  A  clearing  of  the  brush 
by  carefully  regulated  burning  just  before  a  seed  year 
would  enormously  aid  reproduction. 

The  value  of  the  seed-trees  would  probably  not  be 
over  one  or  two  dollars  per  acre. 

This  system  has  also  been  used  in  the  white  pine 
forests  of  the  Northeast.  Where  it  has  been  applied,  the 
forest  has  been  usually  a  second  growth  from  50  to  100 
years  old.  From  2  to  5  seed-trees  have  been  left  per 
acre,  and  these  have  been  of  comparatively  small  value, 
averaging  ordinarily  not  over  $3  per  acre.  In  certain 
sections,  as,  for  example,  in  southern  New  Hampshire, 
very  good  reproduction  follows  this  method,  for  there 
is  very  little  competition  with  other  species  in  mixture, 
and  the  conditions  for  germination  are  excellent.  In 
Massachusetts,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  distinct 
tendency  toward  the  replacement  of  white  pine,  after 


116  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

cutting,  with  oak,  maple,  and  other  hardwoods.  If  the 
original  stand  was  a  mixture  of  white  pine  and  hard- 
woods, many  of  the  latter  send  up  vigorous  sprouts, 
which  practically  maintain  the  proportion  of  hardwoods 
in  the  future  stand,  and  it  becomes  difficult  to  increase 
the  proportion  of  pine.  In  pure  white-pine  stands  there 
is  also  a  tendency  toward  a  replacement  by  hardwoods 
because  of  the  great  abundance  of  seed  on  the  ground, 
and  of  young  seedlings  already  started  under  the  pines. 
This  tendency  can  partly  be  overcome  by  burning  over 
the  ground.  Where,  however,  the  hardwoods  are  estab- 
lished as  the  principal  growth,  pine  creeps  in  underneath 
them  in  a  few  years,  provided  there  are  trees  to  furnish 
the  seed. 

The  system  of  scattered  seed-trees  is  applicable  also 
to  the  second-growth  stands  of  loblolly  and  other  yel- 
low pines  in  the  South;  in  certain  instances  to  second- 
growth  Douglas  fir  stands  on  the  Pacific  Coast;  and, 
where  the  conditions  of  moisture  are  favorable,  to  cer- 
tain stands  of  pure  Western  yellow  pine. 

It  is  a  system  more  commonly  applicable  in  second 
growth  than  in  a  virgin  forest,  because  in  the  former  the 
investment  in  securing  reproduction  may  be  brought 
within  a  reasonable  amount,  while  in  the  virgin  forest  it 
is  difficult  to  find  seed-trees  of  the  right  character  which 
do  not  represent  so  great  an  investment  as  to  make  the 
system  impracticable. 

Reserving  Groups  of  Seed-Trees. — In  exposed  sites  it 
is  often  not  practicable  to  leave  isolated  seed-trees,  because 


SYSTEMS   OF   CLEAR-CUTTING 


117 


118  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

of  the  danger  from  windfall.  In  many  instances  a  clump 
of  trees  will  resist  the  wind  where  single  trees  will  not. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  when  one  or  two  fairly  wind- 
firm  trees  are  in  the  clump.  Suppose,  for  example,  that 
a  forest  is  composed  of  two  species,  one  subject  to  wind- 
fall and  the  other  fairly  wind-firm;  and  suppose  that  it  is 
desired  to  reproduce  the  former.  It  might  often  be  the 
case  that  a  clump  of  trees  composed  of  both  species  would 
resist  the  wind  and  accomplish  the  reproduction,  even 
if  only  a  few  of  the  trees  in  the  clump  were  of  the  wind- 
firm  species. 

The  clumps  would  ordinarily  comprise  from  three  to 
thirty  trees,  and  would  be  located  and  spaced  on  the 
same  principles  as  under  the  system  of  scattered  seed- 
trees.  The  only  difference  between  the  two  systems  is 
that  in  the  latter  a  group  of  several  trees  would  usually 
be  left  instead  of  single  isolated  trees. 

Reserving  Thrifty  Standards. — In  the  two  systems 
described  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  purpose  of  leaving 
reserves  is  for  reproduction,  and  for  that  only.  Under 
the  method  now  to  be  described,  trees  are  left  standing 
for  two  reasons,  reproduction  and  growth. 

The  system  is  applied  in  regular,  relatively  even-aged 
stands  of  moderate  age;  that  is,  to  stands  in  which  there 
are  many  trees  still  capable  of  living  a  long  time,  and 
capable  of  rapid  growth.  It  is  not  applicable  in  very  old 
stands  in  which  the  trees  have  all  reached  their  limit  of 
profitable  growth.  Usually  the  system  is  not  applicable 
to  stands  over  about  100  years  old. 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  119 

The  design  is  to  leave  scattered  over  the  cutting  area 
trees  which  are  thrifty,  capable  of  producing  abundant 
seed,  and  capable  of  living  through  a. second  rotation. 
Suppose  that  a  stand  is  cut  when  100  years  old.  Selected 
reserves  are  left  standing,  and  these  restock  the  ground. 
The  reserves,  then,  are  designed  to  stand  during  the 
entire  rotation  of  the  new  crop.  If  this  new  stand  is  cut 
at  100  years  of  age,  there  will  be  scattered  throughout  it 
a  certain  number  of  trees  about  200  years  old.  The  re- 
serves will  have  stood  for  fully  half  a  century  practi- 
cally isolated,  and  for  another  half  century  as  the  leaders 
in  the  stand.  With  the  advantage  of  full  light  they  will 
have  made  a  maximum  growth.  With  a  rotation  for 
the  stand  of  only  100  years,  a  certain  amount  of  timber 
of  large  size  and  high  grade  will  be  produced. 

SELECTION  OF  THE  STANDARDS. — The  trees  selected  to 
remain  standing  are  from  among  the  dominant  trees  of 
moderate  development.  The  aim  is  to  select  trees  of  as 
little  present  commercial  value  as  will  meet  the  require- 
ments of  reserves.  The  trees  must,  however,  be  from 
the  dominant  class.  Suppressed  trees  and  ordinary  inter- 
mediate trees  would  not  be  suitable  for  purposes  of  re- 
production or  growth.  The  trees  must  be  wind-firm, 
since  they  will  stand  isolated  for  many  years.  They 
must  have  thrifty  crowns  capable  of  responding  to  the 
new  conditions  of  light  and  space,  and  capable  of  produ- 
cing rapid  growth.  They  must  be  likely  to  develop 
into  good  seed  producers,  even  if  they  are  not  so  at  pres- 
ent. Ordinarily,  their  crowns  should  take  up  at  least  35 


120  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

or  40  per  cent,  of  the  tree's  length.  They  should  be 
thoroughly  sound,  and  as  straight  as  can  be  found.  In  a 
stand  having  trees  from  6  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  they 
would  usually  have  a  diameter  of  from  9  to  12  inches. 
Trees  with  large,  spreading  crowns  are  avoided,  in  order 
that  there  may  be  as  little  interference  with  the  new  crop 
as  possible. 

NUMBER  OF  STANDARDS. — In  determining  the  number 
of  reserves,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  must 
stand  far  enough  apart  for  a  new  stand  to  develop  among 
them.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  consider  the  size  of 
the  crowns  of  the  reserves.  The  reserves  are  evenly 
distributed,  so  far  as  this  is  compatible  with  the  selection 
of  proper  trees.  Since  the  method  is  most  commonly 
applied  with  intolerant  trees,  the  number  of  reserves 
must  be  comparatively  restricted.  A  good  rule  is  to  aim 
to  have  an  average  interval  between  the  crowns  of  fully 
30  to  40  feet.  This  would  usually  mean  about  from  15 
to  25  reserves  per  acre. 

RESULTS. — This  system  yields  better  reproduction 
than  the  scattered  seed-tree  system.  There  are  from 
15  to  25  seed-trees,  and  though  they  are  not  so  large 
as  those  left  under  the  other  system,  and  each  would 
not  yield  so  much  seed,  they  are  so  much  more  numerous 
and  so  much  nearer  together  that  the  results  are  better. 
The  trees  are  near  enough  together  to  give  a  certain 
amount  of  shade  that  is  very  beneficial  in  checking  exces- 
sive drying  of  the  soil,  and  in  reducing  damage  to  the 
seedlings  bv  frost.  The  presence  of  15  or  25  reserves 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  121 

cannot  help  interfering  to  some  extent  with  the  de- 
velopment of  some  of  the  young  trees.  About  10 
or  20  per  cent,  of  the  area  will  be  shaded  from  above, 
and  this  proportion  of  the  new  crop  will  be  prevented 
from  making  normal  growth.  In  case  of  loblolly  pine, 
this  would  result  in  reducing  the  yield  from  the  new 
crop  by  about  from  1,000  to  2,000  board  feet.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  20  of  the  reserves  lived  through  the 
second  rotation  successfully,  they  alone  would  yield  at 
least  from  5,000  to  10,000  feet  of  lumber  of  the  highest 
grade. 

APPLICATION. — There  are  no  instances  in  this  country 
of  the  systematic  use  of  this  system.  In  Europe,  the 
plan  of  reserving  certain  trees  for  growth  over  a  second 
rotation  has  long  been  in  practise.  The  purpose  of  these 
reserves  has,  however,  been  chiefly  for  growth.  Re- 
production has  generally  been  accomplished  by  planting. 

The  system  may  well  be  applied  to  many  even-aged, 
comparatively  young  stands  in  this  country,  such  as  lob- 
lolly and  other  yellow  pines  in  the  South,  white  pine 
occasionally,  Western  yellow  pine,  and  Douglas  fir. 

Clear-Cutting  in  Two  or  More  Operations. — The  con- 
dition requiring  the  clear-cutting  of  an  area  in  one  opera- 
tion is  temporary.  The  advance  in  values  will  before 
long  permit  the  cutting  in  a  single  operation  of  a  smaller 
amount  in  a  given  logging  unit  than  is  now  practicable. 
Already  in  many  stands  that  require  clear-cutting,  it  is 
possible  to  restrict  the  first  cuttings  to  strips  or  patches 
occupying  not  over  40  or  50  per  cent,  of  the  area,  and 


122  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.  26. — A  Stand  of  Western  Yellow  Pine,  with  Scattered  Old  Trees, 
Showing  the  Results  which  May  be  Obtained  by  Reserving  the  Thrifty 
Standards  for  Growth  through  a  Second  Rotation.  Black  Hills,  South 
Dakota. 


SYSTEMS   OF    CLEAR-CUTTIXG  123 

then   return   and   cut   the  remainder   in   one  or  several 
operations. 

The  clear-cutting  systems  which  involve  more  than 
one  operation  may  be  classed  under  three  heads: 

1 .  Alternate  Cleared  Strips. 

2.  Irregular  Cleared  Strips. 

3.  Progressive  Cleared  Strips. 

Alternate  Cleared  Strips. — In  the  first  operation,  the 
strips  are  cut  at  more  or  less  regular  distances,  leaving 
alternating  bands  of  standing  timber  between  them.  The 
design  is  to  cut  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  area  clear 
at  the  first  cutting.  It  is  expected  that  the  clearings  will 
become  restocked  by  seed  from  the  standing  timber. 
When  reproduction  has  taken  place  on  the  cleared  strips, 
a  second  operation  is  made  for  the  timbered  strips  be- 
tween them. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  STRIPS. — A  regular  arrangement  of 
alternate  strips  is  possible  wherever  the  topography 
permits  it.  In  general,  the  conditions  must  be  such  that 
the  logs  may  be  conveniently  taken  out  of  the  strips  to 
the  road.  The  simplest  conditions  are  where  the  ground 
is  level  or  gently  sloping.  Logging  is  then  easy,  and 
the  strips  may  be  laid  off  uniformly,  and  with  main 
reference  to  reproduction. 

Under  these  conditions  the  strips  are  laid  off  at  right 
angles  or  diagonally  to  the  prevailing  winds,  unless  some 
special  considerations  require  a  different  arrangement. 
This  manner  of  cutting  insures  the  best  possible  distribu- 
tion of  seed  over  the  clearings.  It  may  happen  that  the 


124  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

area  is  so  situated  that  the  necessary  location  of  the  roads 
will  not  permit  the  laying  off  of  the  strips  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind.  It  is  usu- 
ally possible,  however,  to  make  them  run  in  such  a  way 
that  seed  will  blow  across  them.  This  may  necessitate 
making  the  strips  narrower  than  would  be  proper  if  their 
location  were  the  best. 

If  the  timber  is  situated  on  a  long,  even  slope,  the 
method  of  alternate  strips  can  be  used,  provided  that 
a  profitable  logging  operation  can  be  conducted.  Ordi- 
narily under  such  circumstances,  the  strips  are  run  up  and 
down  the  slopes.  On  broken,  rugged  topography  the 
method  of  regular  alternating  strips  cannot  be  used  at  all. 
The  clearings  are  then  located  according  to  the  topogra- 
phy, and  are  arranged  very  irregularly  in  the  manner 
described  on  page  128. 

WIDTH  OF  STRIPS. — The  width  of  the  strips  depends 
on  the  distance  to  which  seed  will  be  distributed  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  insure  reproduction.  It  depends  also 
on  the  conditions  for  germination.  If  these  are  good, 
the  strips  may  be  wider  than  when  they  are  poor,  for  in 
the  latter  case  more  seed  is  necessary  to  insure  repro- 
duction. No  rule  can  be  given,  because  every  case 
must  be  judged  on  the  ground  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  reproductive  habits  of  the  species  in  question.  In 
general,  the  best  results  are  secured  when  the  strips  are 
not  wider  than  the  height  of  the  bordering  trees.  Seed 
is  carried  to  considerably  greater  distances,  but  usually 
not  in  quantities  sufficient  for  a  full  reproduction.  In 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  125 

this  country,  logging  conditions  may  often  require  strips 
wider  than  the  standard.  The  wide  strips  are  cut  with 
full  knowledge  that  the  reproduction  will  not  be  so  good 
as  on  narrow  strips. 

In  most  forests  where  this  method  is  likely  to  be 
used,  and  with  species  growing  in  their  optimum  region 
of  development,  fair  reproduction  can  be  secured  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  three  times  the  height  of  the  seed-trees. 
Under  especially  favorable  conditions  even  a  greater  dis- 
tance can  be  safely  used.  Thus,  it  is  believed  that  in 
Douglas  fir  stands  in  the  foothills  of  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, where  the  trees  are  from  150  to  175  feet  or  more 
in  height,  strips  may  be  cut  from  500  to  600  feet  wide. 

In  this  country,  the  general  rule  has  been  to  make  the 
strips  as  wide  as  possible.  In  Europe,  the  rule  has  been 
to  make  them  as  narrow  as  possible.  The  effort  to  make 
a  wide  strip  is  designed  to  cheapen  the  cost  of  lumber- 
ing; the  aim  is  to  reduce  the  present  investment,  even 
at  a  sacrifice  of  future  returns.  The  advantages  of  a  nar- 
row over  a  wide  strip  are  as  follows: 

1.  A    quicker,    surer,    and    denser    reproduction    is 
secured. 

2.  A  smaller,  continuous  area  is  exposed,  and  there  is 
less  damage  by  drying  of  the  soil. 

3.  The  newly  established  trees  have  a  measure  of  side 
shade,  and  suffer  less  from  drought. 

4.  On  steep  slopes  the  danger  from  erosion  is  less. 

5.  The  damage  to  small  growth  by  insects  is  in  the 
long  run  less. 


126  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  distance  between  the  strips  is  ordinarily  about 
the  same  as  the  width  of  the  clearings.  This  is  deter- 
mined on  a  basis  of  the  percentage  of  timber  to  be  re- 
moved at  the  first  cutting.  If  50  per  cent,  is  to  be  cut, 
then  the  strips  and  bands  of  standing  timber  are  the  same 
in  width.  If  more  than  50  per  cent,  is  to  be  cut,  the 
intervening  bands  of  timber  are  correspondingly  narrow- 
er than  the  areas  cleared.  Ordinarily,  the  strips  are 
of  uniform  width.  There  will,  however,  be  many  spots 
where  a  strip  will  run  through  a  site  with  an  exception- 
ally shallow  or  soft  soil,  and  danger  of  windfall  would  be 
great.  In  that  case,  a  widening  of  the  strip  is  made,  to 
comprise  the  endangered  area.  In  the  same  way  other 
special  conditions  will  often  require  a  departure  from 
uniformity  in  the  width  of  the  strips. 

THE  SECOND  CUTTING. — When  the  cleared  strips  have 
become  stocked  with  young  growth,  the  bands  of  standing 
timber  may  be  removed.  Sometimes  reproduction  takes 
place  promptly  in  the  first  seed-year  succeeding  the  cut- 
ting. More  often  several  seed-years  are  required.  This 
is  particularly  true  when  wide  strips  are  cut.  Ordina- 
rily, with  wide  strips  the  second  cutting  may  be  made 
within  10  or  15  years;  with  narrow  strips  in  from  5  to  6 
years. 

The  second  cutting  cannot,  like  the  first,  be  a  clear- 
ing, for  there  would  then  remain  no  seed-trees  for  natural 
reproduction.  The  simplest  silviculture  would  be  to 
clear-cut  and  plant,  but  that  is  often  out  of  the  question. 

If  these  second  strips  must  be  practically  all  taken  off 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  127 

in  one  operation,  and  single  trees  and  groups  cannot  be 
left  because  of  danger  from  windfall,  blocks  must  be  left 
comprising  as  large  a  percentage  of  the  stand  as  the  con- 
ditions permit — say  from  15  to  25  per  cent.  These 
blocks  would  not  insure  very  good  reproduction  when 
they  could  not  be  properly  located.  Under  poor  market 
conditions  at  the  time  of  the  second  cutting,  there  is, 
therefore,  no  method  of  securing  adequate  natural  repro- 
duction. 

Frequently,  in  this  country,  the  question  of  how 
the  second  strips  of  timber  are  to  be  removed  is  not 
decided  when  the  first  strips  are  cut.  The  forester  has 
usually  located  the  first  cuttings,  and,  knowing  that  some 
10  years  or  more  will  elapse  before  the  second  cutting, 
has  left  the  problem  of  how  to  reproduce  the  balance  for 
some  one  else  to  solve.  This  is  not  good  practise,  and 
is  justified  only  under  the  stress  of  being  obliged  to  cut 
in  a  given  stand  when  a  clear-cutting  system  is  necessary, 
and  when  a  clearing  of  over  about  50  per  cent,  would  be 
a  misfortune.  Good  reproduction  on  half  the  area  is 
better  than  very  poor  reproduction  on  the  whole. 

OPERATION. — The  strips  are  cut  clear.  Theoretically 
this  means  the  removal  of  ever}7  tree.  In  practise,  even 
with  the  good  market  conditions,  there  are  some  small 
individuals  which  it  is  too  expensive  to  remove.  Such 
trees  would  not,  however,  interfere  in  any  serious  way 
with  reproduction  or  with  the  development  of  the  stand. 
Yet  it  is  desirable  not  to  have  any  such  trees  if  it  can  be 
helped,  unless  they  are  likely  to  live  and  constitute  legiti- 


128  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

mate  reserves.  If  any  groups  of  young  growth  occur, 
they  are  carefully  protected,  unless  they  are  so  small  and 
scattered  that  this  would  involve  an  unwarranted  expense. 
The  logs  are  removed  just  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  the 
slash  is  destroyed.  In  some  cases  it  is  desirable  to  burn 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  prepare  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed. 

Irregular  Cleared  Strips. — Where  the  topography  is 
uneven  and  rugged,  a  regular  arrangement  of  alterna- 
ting strips  is  impracticable.  Such  cuttings  would  usually 
increase  the  difficulties  and  cost  of  logging;  the  regular 
strips  would  result  in  windfall  on  many  exposed  points; 
the  location  of  the  strips  with  reference  to  the  bordering 
seed-trees  would  often  be  unfavorable  for  good  reproduc- 
tion; the  bands  of  standing  timber  would  in  many  cases 
be  poorly  located  with  reference  to  reproduction  at  the 
time  of  the  second  cut;  and  one  could  not  take  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  condition  of  the  timber  to  locate  the  cut- 
tings where  most  needed. 

On  rough  topography  the  clearings  may  be  irregular- 
ly arranged,  and  be  irregular  in  size  and  form.  Just  as 
in  the  case  of  the  regular  cleared  strips,  the  design  is  to 
remove  the  stand  in  two  or  more  operations.  The  first 
cuttings  comprise  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  area,  and 
take  the  form  of  clearings  restricted  sufficiently  to  permit 
a  distribution  of  seed  from  the  bordering  trees. 

The  forester  determines  in  advance  the  proportion  of 
the  area  which  will  be  cleared.  This  is  based  on  consid- 
erations of  logging,  reproduction,  windfall,  protection 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  129 

from  fire,  the  condition  of  the  timber,  and  the  succeeding 
operations  which  will  remove  the  balance  of  the  stand. 
The  clearings  are  located  with  reference  to  the  same  con- 
siderations. Their  location  is  a  matter  of  careful  and 
skilful  selection  in  contrast  to  a  conventional  arrangement 
of  cleared  strips  of  uniform  width  at  regular  intervals. 

LOCATION  OF  STRIPS. — In  locating  on  the  ground  the 
areas  to  be  cut,  the  forester  should  keep  in  mind  the 
following  considerations: 

1.  Logging. — The  question  of  practical  logging  must 
be  considered  first  of  all.     The  location  of  the  cutting 
areas,    which   would    be   most    advantageous   from   the 
silvicultural    standpoint,    might,    under    some    circum- 
stances, be  entirely  impracticable  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  cost  of  logging.     Under  a  given  set  of  condi- 
tions of  forest  and  topography,  the  required  method  of 
logging  is  pretty  clearly  defined.     The  method  of  log- 
ging, the  location  of  roads,  and  the  cost  of  constructing 
them,  the  cost  of  installing  the  appliances,  the  cost  of 
cutting  the  logs  and  transporting  them  to  market,  and 
their  market  value,  must  determine  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  clearings  and  their  approximate  size.     Their 
precise  location  depends,  in  addition,  on  the  considera- 
tions discussed  below. 

2.  Reproduction. — The  clearings  are  sufficiently  nar- 
row to  enable  the  distribution  of  seed  over  them  from  the 
seed-trees   standing  on  the   border.     The  form   of   the 
cleared  areas  is  a  matter  of  no  importance  as  far  as  repro- 
duction is  concerned.     For  the  reasons  explained  on  page 


130 


THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.   27. — Clear-Cutting    as    Applied  in  a    Scotch    Pine   Forest  in   Ger- 
many.    The  Clearing  will  be  Restocked  by  Planting. 


FIG.  28. — Clear-Cutting  in  Strips  as  applied  in  Lodgepole  Pine. 
Deer  Lodge  National  Forest,  Montana 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  131 

125  the  clearings  should  be  as  narrow  as  is  compatible 
with  practical  requirements  of  logging.  They  must  not 
be  wider  than  the  distance  of  abundant  seed  distribution. 

The  clearings  are  so  located  that  there  will  be  nu- 
merous seed-trees  on  the  border,  especially  on  the  side 
toward  the  prevailing  wind.  Where  there  is  danger  of 
injury  to  the  soil  and  to  the  reproduction  by  drying 
winds,  the  cuttings  are  as  far  as  possible  located  so  that 
the  remaining  stands  act  as  shelter  belts  and  reduce  the 
winds'  unfavorable  influence. 

In  general,  the  cutting  areas  are  located  more  on  the 
lower  than  on  the  upper  slopes,  when  this  is  compatible 
with  the  proper  operation  of  the  second  cutting.  There 
are  several  advantages,  as  follows: 

a.  The  present  logging  is  facilitated — at  the  time  of 
poorest  market  conditions. 

b.  The  location  of  seed-trees  above  a  clearing  is  bet- 
ter than  below  it,  and  such  a  location  enables  a  larger 
opening  to  be  made. 

c.  The  steepest  part  of  the  slopes  are  kept  under  for- 
est at  a  time  when  market  conditions  only  permit  a  clear 
cutting. 

d.  Very  commonly,  as  a   result  of  old  clearings  by 
fire,  the  trees  on  the  upper  slopes  are  younger  than  those 
below;   and  the  greatest  amount  of  unsound  timber  is 
usually  on  the  lower  ground. 

3 .  Condition  of  the  Forest.  — The  i  rregu  lar  arran  gement 
of  clearings  enables  the  forester  to  cut  just  those  stands 
which  are  most  in  need  of  attention,  namely,  the  patches 


132  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

which  are  mature,  deteriorating,  diseased,  insect-infested, 
or  damaged  by  fire  or  other  agency. 

4.  Windfall. — The  cuttings  may  be  made  so  as  to 
reduce  to  a  minimum  the  damage  to  the  remaining  stand 
by  windfall.  In  a  broken  topography  the  irregular  loca- 
tion of  cuttings  is  the  best  method  of  making  clearings 
so  as  to  avoid  this  danger. 

THE  SECOND  CUTTING. — The  problem  of  reproduc- 
tion at  the  time  of  the  second  cut  is  taken  into  account 
in  locating  the  first  clearings.  In  some  instances  the 
location  of  a  clearing  may  be  determined  entirely  by  this 
consideration.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  there  is  a 
choice  between  locating  the  cutting  on  a  site  exposed 
to  windfall  and  on  a  sheltered  site.  This  might  occur 
where  a  strip  is  to  be  cut  on  one  side  of  a  ravine  and 
not  the  other.  The  exposed  side  is  cut  at  the  first 
operation,  and  the  sheltered  side  left  for  the  second  cut. 
When  the  second  cut  is  made,  reproduction  may  be 
accomplished  by  leaving  seed-trees,  or  by  some  other 
system  applicable  where  the  danger  from  windfall  is 
removed. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  instances  in  every 
operation  where  the  problems  of  logging  and  present 
reproduction  do  not  permit  locating  the  cutting  primari- 
ly with  reference  to  the  second  operation.  In  this  event 
the  situation  is  precisely  that  of  the  conventional  alter- 
nate strips. 

Progressive  Cleared  Strips. — This  method  provides 
for  the  gradual  clearing  off  of  a  stand  of  mature  timber 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING 


133 


by  a  series  of  strips  beginning  on  one  side  and  pro- 
gressing across  the  area  until  the  whole  is  cleared. 

It  is  a  method  which  requires  a  number  of  separate 
operations  in  the  same  stand.  After  the  first  strip  is  cut, 
an  interval  is  allowed  to  elapse  until  the  clearing  is 
restocked  by  natural  reproduction.  Then  a  second  strip, 
bordering  on  the  first,  is  cut,  and  this  in  turn  is  repro- 
duced, and  then  successive  other  strips  are  cut  at  inter- 
vals until  the  timber  is  cut  off. 

It  is  at  once  obvious  that  if  this  method  were  applied 


in 


m 


ii          i         m        n          i 

FIG.  29. — Cutting  Series. 

to  a  large  block  of  timber  and  the  strips  cut  even  moder- 
ately wide,  it  would  take  a  long  period  to  cover  the  area, 
and  that  a  very  small  yield  would  be  obtained  at  a  single 
operation. 

CUTTING  SERIES. — To  meet  this  difficulty,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  constitute  in  a  single  block  several  cutting  series. 
Instead  of  beginning  at  one  side  and  progressing  across 
the  area  in  a  single  series  of  strips,  the  stand  is  divided 
into  several  approximately  equal  divisions,  and  a  series 


134  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

of  strips  established  in  each.  Suppose,  for  example, 
that  a  tract  900  feet,  long,  such  as  that  represented  in 
Fig.  29,  is  to  be  cut,  and  it  is  desired  to  remove  the 
timber  in  12  years.  Suppose,  further,  that  reproduction 
of  the  cleared  strips  can  be  secured  in  about  4  years. 
The  aim  should  then  be  to  cut  over  a  single  division 
in  three  operations  indicated  in  the  figure  as  I,  II  and 
III.  The  first  cutting  then  removes  3  strips,  each  100 
feet  wide,  separated  by  a  distance  of  200  feet.  After 
about  4  years,  the  second  operation  removes  the  second 
strips  bordering  on  the  first.  At  the  end  of  the  next 
period  of  4  years,  the  final  strips  are  ready  for  repro- 
duction. This  last  strip  cannot  be  cut  clear  and 
reproduced  naturally,  for  there  would  be  no  seed-trees 
left  standing.  It  is,  therefore,  either  reproduced  nat- 
urally by  some  other  system,  or  cut  clear  and  restocked 
artificially. 

Use  in  this  Country. — This  system  is  not  used  very 
commonly,  even  in  Europe.  It  has  not  been  used  in 
this  country  in  a  systematic  way,  as  far  as  the  author  is 
informed.  It  is  probable  that  it  will  occasionally  be  used 
in  a  small  way  in  cutting  woodlots  under  certain  condi- 
tions. Thus,  it  is  sometimes  customary  to  cut  off  the 
even-aged  stands  of  white  cedar  in  New  Jersey  by  strips. 
The  owner  cuts  a  strip  each  year  and  gradually  works 
over  the  swamp.  He  does  not  cut  in  this  way  in  order 
to  secure  reproduction,  but  because  it  is  the  most  con- 
venient way  for  him  to  operate.  The  result,  however,  is 
a  series  of  strip  reproduction  cuttings.  Probably  the 


SYSTEMS    OF    CLEAR-CUTTING  135 

plan  would  work  very  well  in  the  small  holdings  of 
second-growth  loblolly  pine  in  the  central  Atlantic 
Coast  region,  and  in  other  coniferous  stands  where 
reproduction  is  simple. 

Clear-Cutting  in  Patches. — This  system  ordinarily 
involves  the  gradual  removal  of  a  given  stand  by  a  series 
cf  clearings,  each  covering  only  a  restricted  part  of  the 
area.  In  the  first  operation,  patches  of  irregular  form 
and  limited  size  are  cut.  These  patches,  which  are 
usually  not  over  100  to  200  feet  across,  are  located  here 
and  there  through  the  stand  at  points  requiring  the 
most  immediate  attention.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not 
aggregate  over  40  per  cent,  of  the  area.  They  are  skil- 
fully located  with  reference  to  reproduction.  When  a 
new  growth  has  been  established,  each  patch  is  enlarged 
by  a  second  cutting  in  the  form  of  a  cleared  strip 
running  entirely  around  it.  After  this  strip  is  repro- 
duced, another  cutting  is  made,  still  further  enlarging 
the  opening.  This  is  continued  until  the  clearings 
merge  together.  The  last  cutting  will  leave  no  seed- 
trees  standing,  so  that  natural  reproduction  cannot  be 
secured.  Unless  there  has  been  natural  reproduction 
under  the  trees  as  advance  growth,  the  final  clearing  must 
therefore  be  planted  artificially. 

This  plan  of  successive  enlargements  of  patches  is  sel- 
dom carried  through  to  its  logical  completion.  In  prac- 
tise, the  patch  system  is  applied  only  in  making  the  first 
cuttings,  and  some  other  method  is  used  for  the  repro- 
duction of  the  balance.  Thus,  the  first  cuttings  may  be 


136          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

in  the  form  of  patches  cut  clear,  while  reproduction  is 
secured  naturally  from  the  bordering  trees.  The  portion 
of  the  stand  left  standing  may  be  cut  under  the  shelter- 
wood  system,  or  it  may  be  cut  clear  and  the  area  planted. 
An  illustration  may  be  taken  from  a  case  in  southern 
Europe  that  once  came  under  the  author's  observation. 
The  forest  was  composed  of  beech  and  spruce.  It  so 
happened  that  the  natural  reproduction  of  beech  in  that 
district  was  better  than  that  of  the  spruce.  The  use  of 
the  shelterwood  system  would  have  resulted  in  an  increase 
of  beech  in  the  new  stand.  Accordingly,  the  first  cut- 
tings were  in  the  form  of  patches,  made  about  as  wide  as 
the  tree-height.  Care  was  taken  to  leave  abundant  seed- 
trees  of  spruce  on  the  border.  The  light  seed  was  read- 
ily distributed  over  the  area,  while  beech-seed  is  scarcely 
carried  beyond  the  periphery  of  the  crowns.  Good 
reproduction  was  secured  on  the  plots,  and  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  spruce  in  the  new  crop  was  thus  guaranteed. 
The  balance  was  then  reproduced  by  the  shelterwood 
method,  the  beech  predominating  in  the  new  repro- 
duction. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   SHELTERWOOD   SYSTEM 

Underlying  Principles  of  the  Shelterwood  System 

EXPERIENCE  has  shown  that  the  systems  of  clear-cut- 
tings with  natural  reproduction  have  certain  disadvan- 
tages which  in  many  cases  render  their  results  uncertain 
and  unsatisfactory.  The  exposure  of  the  soil  often  re- 
sults in  retarding  reproduction  through  drought  or  frost, 
or  through  competition  with  brush  and  weeds,  which 
spring  up  in  abundance  on  clearings.  A  disadvantage 
of  the  clear-cutting  systems  with  natural  reproduction  is 
that  they  cannot  be  used  with  trees  having  heavy  seed. 
All  of  these  difficulties  are  in  a  measure  overcome  by 
the  application  of  the  shelterwood  system. 

The  principle  underlying  this  system  is  to  remove 
a  given  stand  gradually  by  a  series  of  thinnings.  The 
opening  of  the  canopy  results  in  reproduction  over  the 
ground  under  the  protective  shelter  of  the  trees  left  stand- 
ing. These  trees  are  then  removed  at  one  cutting,  or 
gradually,  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  new  crop 
and  the  special  requirements  of  market  and  logging. 

Advantages  of  the  System. — The  special  advan- 
tages of  the  system  are  the  following: 

1.  The  cuttings  for  reproduction  leave  a  large  num- 

137 


138  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

her  of  seed-trees,  evenly  distributed  and  comparative- 
ly close  together.  In  consequence,  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  seed  is  produced,  and  is  regularly  distrib- 
uted over  the  area. 

2.  The  system  may  be  used  with  trees  having  heavy 
seed,  for  the  distribution  of  seed  may  be  entirely  con- 
trolled by  the  number  of  seed-trees  and  their  distance 
apart. 

3.  The    shade   of    the   remaining  trees   retards   the 
growth  of  grass,  weeds,  and  brush,  which  would  interfere 
with  the  young  growth  of  trees. 

4.  The  shelter  acts  as  a  protection  to  the  soil,  pre- 
venting excessive  drying  and  baking. 

5.  The  shelter  protects  the  seedlings  from  drought 
and  frost. 

6.  During  the  period  of  reproduction  the  trees  left 
standing  are  more  or  less  isolated,  and  grow  at  a  maxi- 
mum  rate,    adding   substantially  to  the  final   aggregate 
yield  and  value. 

7.  The  new  stand  is  established  in  advance  of  clear- 
ing.    As   a  result,  there   is   not  only  a  gain  of  several 
years'  growth,   but   the   interval   between  removing  the 
cover  of  old  trees  and  the  formation  of  a  close  canopy  by 
the  new  trees  is  much  shorter  than  in  the  clear-cutting 
operations.     The  soil  is,  therefore,  exposed  for  a  mini- 
mum length  of  time. 

8.  The  gradual  clearing  of  a  forest  by  successive  thin- 
nings is  always  less  objectionable  from  an  esthetic  stand- 
point than  a  clear-cutting. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM 


139 


FIG.  30. — Reproduction  of  a  Stand  by  the  Shelterwood  System.  The 
Sheltering  Trees  will  be  Removed  in  the  Next  Ten  Years.  Black 
Forest,  Germany. 


FIG.  31. — Primitive  Application  of  the  Shelterwood  System,  after  the  First 
Cutting.     Lodgepole  Pine.     Big  Horn  National  Forest,  Wyoming. 


140  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

Disadvantages  of  the  System. — As  compared  with 
the  clear-cutting  systems,  the  shelterwood  system,  there- 
fore, gives  to  the  forester  means  of  better  controlling 
reproduction,  protecting  young  growth,  and  conserving 
the  quality  of  soil,  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  forest. 

The  chief  disadvantage,  from  a  silvicultural  stand- 
point, is  that  the  system  cannot  be  applied  when  there 
is  great  danger  from  windfall.  During  the  period  of 
cuttings  the  trees  are  isolated,  and,  therefore,  exposed  to 
danger  from  windfall.  This  disadvantage  is  partly  over- 
come in  European  practise  by  opening  up  the  forest  in 
the  first  instance  by  a  series  of  light  thinnings,  and  thus 
gradually  rendering  more  windfirm  the  trees  that  are 
chosen  to  stand.  Even  this  measure  is  of  no  avail  where 
the  danger  from  windfall  is  extreme.  In  this  country  a 
series  of  light  thinnings  is  often  not  feasible,  and  this 
fact  excludes  the  system  not  only  from  the  more  exposed 
sites,  but  also  from  many  areas  where  it  would  be  practi- 
cable if  it  could  be  intensively  applied. 

A  second  disadvantage  touches  the  problem  of  log- 
ging. The  conditions  must  be  such  as  to  permit  the 
restriction  of  the  first  cutting  and  the  removal  of  only 
a  part  of  the  stand  in  the  form  of  a  thinning;  then  a 
return  for  one  or  more  subsequent  cuttings. 

Variation  in  Application. — This  system,  like  all 
others,  must  be  applied  with  wide  variations  in  different 
forest  types,  according  as  the  forests  vary  in  age,  density, 
and  reproductive  capacity.  But  the  application  of  the 
system  is  mainly  affected  by  the  market  and  logging 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  141 

factor.  Upon  this  factor  depends  the  number  of  thin 
nings  which  may  be  made  during  the  process  of  remov- 
ing the  given  stand.  The  best  work  is  done  where  it  is 
possible  to  dispose  of  any  and  all  products  of  the  forest — 
cordwood  as  well  as  logs — and  where  there  are  permanent 
roads.  Under  these  conditions  one  may  make  a  thin- 
ning in  the  forest  whenever  needed,  and  may  cut  just 
those  trees  whose  removal  is  required  in  each  given  case. 
The  other  extreme  is  found  where  the  market  and 
logging  conditions  permit  only  two  cuttings;  one  thin- 
ning to  open  the  stand  for  reproduction,  and  a  final  cut- 
ting after  reproduction  is  secured.  The  better  the  condi- 
tions of  market  and  transportation  the  more  thinnings 
will  it  be  feasible  to  make.  The  greater  the  number  of 
thinnings,  the  more  intensive  will  be  the  application  and 
the  better  will  be  the  final  results.  The  most  intensive 
application  is  found  in  Germany;  the  most  primitive,  in 
America  and  in  other  countries  just  inaugurating  the 
practise  of  forestry. 

Primitive  Application  of  the  System 

The  simplest  use  of  the  system  is  when  it  is  designed 
to  remove  a  given  mature  stand  in  two  cuttings.  The 
first  is  a  thinning  intended  to  secure  the  conditions  re- 
quired for  reproduction.  This  is  called  the  seed-cutting. 
The  next  cutting  is  made  after  the  reproduction  is  se- 
cured, and  removes  the  trees  left  after  the  first  cutting. 
This  is  called  the  final  cutting.  Usually  the  final  cutting 
is  made  from  10  to  20  years  after  the  seed-cutting. 


142  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  method  is  applicable  to  stands  in  which  the  tim- 
ber is  all,  or  nearly  all,  mature,  where  the  trees  are  fairly 
windfirm,  and  where  the  market  permits  the  cutting  of 
a  part  of  a  stand  in  the  form  of  a  thinning.  Precisely 
these  conditions  are  found  in  many  of  our  original  forests 
which  have  an  even-aged  form  of  stand.  The  best  illus- 
trations are  the  old  yellow  pine  stands  in  the  South,  and 
many  stands  of  Western  yellow  pine  in  the  West. 

The  application  differs  so  widely  in  different  forests 
that  the  principles  are  best  illustrated  by  a  discussion  of 
several  practical  examples. 

Application  in  the  Longleaf  Pine  Forests 

The  ordinary  longleaf  pine  forest  is  composed  of 
stands  and  groups  of  regular  form.  The  old  stands  and 
groups  are  composed  chiefly  of  mature  trees.  These 
usually  are  not  continuous,  but  are  broken  by  stands, 
patches,  and  groups  of  younger  trees,  each  of  which  is 
also  of  regular  form.  The  average  forest  in  which  the 
lumberman  to-day  is  operating  is  composed  chiefly  of  old, 
mature  stands.  Usually  about  75  per  cent,  is  mature. 
A  cutting  of  all  mature  trees  would,  therefore,  constitute 
a  series  of  clear-cuttings.  The  younger  trees  would  re- 
main .as  stands,  patches,  and  groups  standing  by  them- 
selves. The  reason  why  the  forests  are  in  this  condition 
must  be  sought  in  the  effect  of  the  forest  fires  which  have 
doubtless  occurred  for  countless  years,  and  in  the  de- 
structive tornadoes  which  periodically  sweep  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  longleaf  pine  region. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  143 

The  mature  stands  require  a  system  of  silviculture 
which  will  remove  the  timber  in  a  restricted  period,  and 
replace  it  with  a  new  even-aged  stand.  The  selection 
system  is  out  of  the  question.  Heretofore,  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  clear-cut  without  reference  to  reproduction. 
Many  foresters  and  lumbermen  agree  that  the  best  meth- 
od is  to  remove  the  timber  in  two  cuttings,  separated 
by  a  period  of  from  10  to  20  years.  This  is  in  real- 
ity the  shelterwood  system,  though  a  very  primitive 
example  in  comparison  with  the  practise  in  Europe.  It 
is  the  best,  and  indeed  often  the  only,  method  which  can 
be  used  under  the  given  conditions. 

The  advantages  to  the  owner  in  using  this  system  are 
as  follows: 

1.  The  forest  is  cut  over  rather  rapidly,  and  the  ma- 
ture, deteriorating  timber  is  utilized. 

2.  The  trees  left   standing  are  thrifty.      They  will 
grow  rapidly  and  add   materially  to  the  amount  which 
may  be  taken  out  at  the  second  cut,  thus  prolonging  the 
supply  on  the  tract. 

3.  Since  the  trees  left  standing  are  the  smaller  diam- 
eters, the  average  grade  of  the  present  cut  is  raised. 

4.  The  increase  of  stumpage,  and  particularly  the  in- 
crease for  the  lower   grades,    should  result  in  a  much 
greater  return  from  the  trees  left  standing  than  could  be 
realized  from  them  if  cut  now. 

5.  A  good  reproduction  may  be  secured,  which  will 
undoubtedly  increase  the  value  of  the   land  for  future 
sale,  at  least  that  portion  not  designed  for  cultivation. 


144  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  First  or  Seed-Cutting. — In  making  the  first  cut- 
ting, the  forester  has  in  mind  present  utilization,  a 
profitable  logging  operation,  the  securing  of  a  maximum 
growth  between  cuts,  a  profitable  second  cut,  and 
reproduction  before  the  time  of  the  second  cut.  The 
special  points  considered  in  selecting  the  trees  for  re- 
moval are  as  follows: 

1.  Cut  all  deteriorating  trees,  such  as  those  infected 
with  red  rot  and  those  with  burned  butts,    cat-face,   or 
similar  defects   likely  to  affect   their   value   before  the 
next  cut. 

2.  Cut  mature  trees  which  have  reached  their  limit  of 
effective  growth,  except  where  absolutely  needed  for  seed. 

3.  Cut  trees  with  suppressed  and  broken  crowns. 

4.  Cut  all  trees   liable  to  be  blown  over  before  the 
second  cut,  such  as  certain  leaning  trees,  tall,  slim  trees 
with  small  crowns,  and  those  weakened  by  boxing. 

5.  The  trees  left  standing  must  be: 

a.  Windfirm. 

b.  Sound. 

c.  With  well-developed  and  thrifty  crowns. 

d.  Capable  not  only  of  living  till  the  second  cut, 

but  of  adding  substantial  growth. 

6.  Provision  is  made  for  the   distribution  of   seed- 
bearing  trees,  so  that  seed  will  be  scattered  in  abundance 
over  the  entire  area. 

7.  If  the    trees   which   should    be    left    for   growth 
are   not  sufficient   in  quantity,  or  not  properly  located, 
special  seed-trees  from  the  mature  class  are  left  standing. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  14  S 

8.  In   leaving   special   seed-trees,    the   ones  of   least 
present  commercial  value  are  selected. 

9.  Defective  trees  may  sometimes  be  left  as  special 
seed-trees,  but  only  if  they  will  produce  seed  in  abun- 
dance, and  will  stand  long  enough  to  secure  reproduction. 

10.  All  groups  and  patches  of  immature  timber  and 
young  growth  are  carefully  protected. 

11.  Of  no  matter  what  size,  trees  attacked  by  insects 
should  be  cut,  even  at  extra  expense,  since  this  is  the 
only   way  to  prevent  the  spread  of  insects  to  the  rest 
of  the  forest. 

In  operating  on  these  principles,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  injure  the  trees  left  standing.  This  applies  to  the 
work  of  felling  and  of  skidding  out  the  logs.  The  for- 
est is  usually  so  open  that  there  is  no  excuse  for  damage 
in  felling  trees.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  for  injuring  the 
standing  trees  and  the  young  growth,  especially  if  logs 
are  taken  out  by  horse  power. 

The  Second  Cutting. — After  reproduction  has  been 
successfully  secured,  the  forest  is  cut  over  a  second  time, 
and  the  timber  left  from  the  first  cut  is  removed.  Theo- 
retically, this  cutting  should  take  place  as  soon  as  the 
young  growth  is  thoroughly  established.  In  actual  prac- 
tise, however,  the  second  cutting  cannot  be  accurately 
timed  with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  new  growth. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  extensive  forests  operated 
on  a  large  scale.  Usually  the  second  cutting  will  not 
be  made  until  the  first  cuttings  have  been  completed 
through  the  whole  forest.  Then  the  operations  will 


146  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

commence  all  over  again,  beginning  at  the  same  point  as 
the  first  cuttings.  Frequently,  however,  the  second  cut- 
tings will  not  follow  precisely  the  same  cutting  areas,  and 
they  may  progress  at  a  different  rate.  Often,  therefore, 
the  interval  between  the  cuts  must  depend  on  the  length 
of  time  it  takes  to  work  over  the  forest  the  first  time. 
This  will  ordinarily  vary  from  10  to  20  years. 

When  the  second  cut  is  made,  the  ground  will  pre- 
sumably be  covered  with  young  growth.  A  certain 
amount  of  damage  to  the  new  growth  will  be  inevitable. 
If  reproduction  has  been  successful,  the  new  growth  will 
be  very  dense;  there  will  be  so  many  trees  that  a  certain 
amount  of  loss  by  breakage  will  not  materially  affect  the 
final  crop.  The  small  openings  made  in  getting  out  the 
logs  will  be  covered  by  the  closing  together  of  the  neigh- 
boring trees  as  they  grow  older.  If  the  reproduction  is 
not  complete,  but  in  patches,  the  logs  can  be  taken  out 
with  very  little  damage  to  such  young  growth  as  has  been 
secured.  In  any  case,  the  loggers  must  exercise  a  great 
deal  of  care  not  to  injure  this  growth.  At  that  cutting  it 
is  probable  that  the  use  of  a  steam  skidder  would  have 
to  be  discontinued. 

Results. — It  is  estimated  that,  on  an  average,  about 
65  per  cent,  of  the  merchantable  trees  are  taken  out 
at  the  first  cutting,  and  that  this  amounts  approxi- 
mately to  70  or  80  per  cent,  of  the  volume  and  60  or  70 
per  cent,  of  the  crown  cover.  The  trees  left  standing 
are  capable  of  fair  growth,  and  this  materially  increases 
the  yield  of  the  second  cut. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  147 

If  fires  are  kept  out,  reproduction  may  be  secured  in 
large  amounts.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  a  full 
stand  cannot  be  obtained.  The  necessity  of  confining 
the  operations  to  only  two  cuttings,  the  heavy  openings 
and  rather  extensive  exposure  of  the  soil,  the  competition 
of  weeds  which  cannot  be  controlled,  and  the  damage  at 
the  second  cut,  are  factors  likely  to  reduce  the  reproduc- 
tion below  what  could  be  secured  under  an  intensive  sys- 
tem of  management.  If,  however,  the  work  is  carried 
out  as  indicated,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  stocking  of  60 
per  cent,  of  the  maximum  shouki  not  be  secured.  Under 
the  circumstances,  this  should  be  considered  very  good; 
it  is  enough  most  amply  to  repay  the  expense  and  trouble 
incurred. 

Application  in  the  Black  Hills 

The  forest  of  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and 
Wyoming  is  chiefly  composed  of  one  species — Western 
yellow  pine.  From  time  immemorial  the  area  has  been 
swept  by  forest  fires,  which  have  made  clearings  of 
greater  or  less  size.  On  these  clearings  stands  of  rela- 
tively even-aged  pine  have  come  up,  so  that  to-day  the 
forest  is  composed  of  stands,  patches,  and  groups,  each  of 
regular  form.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  very  broken 
and  irregular  stands  with  individuals  and  clumps  of  trees 
of  different  ages  intermingling;  but  the  prevailing  form 
is  regular.  The  mature  stands  of  this  regular  character 
are  very  well  handled  by  the  shelterwood  method,  and 
the  Government  is  now  adopting  this  plan  of  cuttings. 


148  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  149 

The  First  Cutting. — Suppose,  for  example,  that  a 
stand  has  an  age  of  100  to  ISO  years,  a  range  of  diameters 
from  8  to  16  inches,  and  a  yield  of  12,000  feet  per  acre. 
The  trees  for  the  first  cutting  are  selected  with  the  fol- 
lowing considerations  in  mind: 

1.  The  cutting  is  restricted  to  about  60  per  cent,  of 
the  present  merchantable  stand. 

2.  The  trees  selected  for  cutting  are  primarily: 

a.  The  largest  trees. 

b.  Defective  trees  which  will  not  live  till  the  next 

cut. 

c.  Trees   with  suppressed,   badly   broken,   or  un- 

healthy crowns. 

d.  Insect-infested  trees. 

e.  Trees  likely  to  be  blown  over  or  otherwise  dam- 

aged before  the  next  cut. 

f.  Trees  with  the  long  slender  boles  and  small  taper. 

g.  Fire-scarred  and  otherwise  injured  trees  which 

are  in  danger  of  becoming  defective  before  the 
next  cut. 

3.  The   trees   left   standing   are  primarily  dominant 
trees  of  moderate  diameter,  with  crowns  of  moderate  size. 

4.  The  trees  left  standing  should  be  sound,  thrifty, 
and  capable   of   responding   to   the   new   conditions   of 
light  and  space,  and  of  producing  an  effective  growth. 
They  should  be  windfirm,  and  capable  of  bearing  seed 
now  or  in  the  near  future. 

5.  When  the  stand  is  dense  and  regular,  the  trees  left 
standing  can  usually  be  spaced  at  fairly  regular  intervals. 


150  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

When  the  stand  is  broken  and  irregular,  this  is  impossi- 
ble. Care  is  taken  to  leave  trees  capable  of  bearing  seed, 
at  least  every  50  feet.  If  there  are  no  trees  of  the 
moderate  diameters  which  will  serve  as  seed-trees,  larger 
trees,  properly  located,  must  be  left. 

6.  All  thrifty   individuals  and   groups  of  immature 
and  young  trees  are  left  standing. 

7.  The  trees  standing  over  good  reproduction  are  cut 
freely. 

The  Second  Cutting. — The  second  cutting  will  prob- 
ably take  place  in  from  10  to  20  years.  By  that  time 
there  should  be  ample  reproduction  over  the  whole 
area  and  in  fairly  uniform  distribution,  under  the  trees  as 
well  as  between  them.  The  damage  to  this  growth  in 
taking  out  the  trees  in  the  final  cutting  will  be  con- 
siderable. But  the  trees  left  standing  are  those  with 
moderate  crowns,  which  will  do  less  damage  than  large 
veterans  with  sprawling  crowns.  The  damage  should 
not  reduce  the  real  density  of  stocking  in  the  new  stand 
over  10  per  cent.,  because  the  young  growth  will  usually 
be  denser  than  is  necessary,  and  the  loss  of  a  few  small 
trees  will  not  materially  impair  the  development  of  the 
new  stand. 

Progress  in  the  Development  of  the  Shelterwood  System 

The  removal  of  a  stand  in  two  successive  cuttings 
represents  the  most  primitive  application  of  the  shel- 
terwood-  system.  As  was  said,  the  time  of  making  a 
given  cutting  is  dependent  more  on  the  conditions  of 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  151 

market  and  logging  than  on  the  requirements  for  repro- 
duction. 

The  next  step  in  the  development  of  the  system  is 
the  removal  of  the  trees  left  after  the  first  or  seed-cutting 
in  two  cuttings  instead  of  one  cutting.  The  additional 
cutting  is  a  thinning  made  after  reproduction  has  been 
started,  in  order  to  admit  more  light  for  development  of 
the  seedling  growth.  It  is  made  when  the  condition  of 
the  new  crop  requires  it;  and  the  amount  of  timber  to 
be  removed  and  the  selection  of  the  trees  depend  on  the 
needs  of  the  young  growth.  It  is  a  thinning,  and  there- 
fore leaves  standing  a  certain  number  of  trees  which  still 
act  as  a  partial  shelter  and  seed  up  blanks  not  reproduced 
after  the  first  thinning.  This  second  thinning  is  called 
the  Removal  Cutting. 

The  two-cutting  plan  was  used  in  Europe  as  early 
as  1720.  In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century  the 
idea  of  three  cuttings  was  fully  developed.  With  the 
improvement  of  market  conditions,  still  greater  attention 
was  given  to  reproduction  and  the  development  of  the 
new  stand.  It  became  more  and  more  possible  for  the 
forester,  from  first  to  last,  to  direct  all  cuttings  so  as  to 
secure  a  full  and  thrifty  new  crop,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  logging.  The  result  of 
experience  in  reproduction  and  of  the  development  of  a 
good  market  is  the  modern  shelterwood  system,  as  ap- 
plied in  Europe,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  cuttings, 
from  three  to  ten  or  more,  according  to  the  needs  of  a 
given  case. 


152          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

In  this  country  we  are  passing  through  the  same 
process  of  development.  The  two-cutting  plan  is  used 
in  certain  virgin  forests  under  difficult  market  condi- 
tions. With  improved  conditions  the  stand  left  after  the 
first  cut  may  be  taken  off  in" two  cuttings.  It  is  probable 
that  this  is  about  as  far  as  we  shall  go  in  operating  old 
forests  from  150  to  300  years  old. 

The  further  development  and  more  intensive  applica- 
tion will  come  with  the  second-growth  regular  stands, 
which  do  not  exceed  100  years  of  age.  Already  in 
many  parts  of  the  East  the  market  is  such  that  the 
system  can  be  applied  in  much  the  same  way  as  in 
Europe.  This  condition  is  reached  when  there  is  a 
market  for  all  wood  products,  including  cordwood,  and 
when  there  is  a  permanent  road  system — conditions  which 
enable  the  forester  to  make  a  thinning  just  when  it  is 
needed,  and  to  cut  just  what  is  required  for  the  good  of 
the  forest. 

Intensive  Application  of  the  Shelterwood  System 

It  is  necessary  to  look  to  Europe  for  the  best  illustra- 
tions of  the  shelterwood  system  intensively  applied. 
The  description  which  follows  is  drawn  entirely  from 
European  practise.  It  holds  equally  good,  however,  in 
the  intensive  application  of  the  shelterwood  system  in 
this  country. 

The  use  of  the  shelterwood  system  varies  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  individual  cuttings  may  be  made  uniformly 
over  the  whole  stand,  or  they  may  be  concentrated  in 


THE   SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  153 

strips  or  groups;  and  in  the  latter  case  a  given  cutting 
affects  only  a  part  of  the  stand.  There  are  recognized  in 
Europe  three  methods  of  application: 

Cuttings  distributed  uniformly. 

Cutting  in  strips. 

Cutting  in  groups. 

Shelterwood  System  with  Uniform  Cuttings 

This  is  called  the  uniform  system  because  the  va- 
rious operations  extend  over  the  whole  stand,  and  the 
thinnings  are  designed  to  secure  a  regular  and  uniform 
reproduction  over  the  area,  rather  than  in  groups  or  in 
strips. 

In  order  to  make  the  description  concrete,  let  us  sup- 
pose that  the  stand  in  question  is  pure  spruce,  even-aged, 
about  100  years  old,  and  fully  stocked.  The  design 
is  to  cut  and  reproduce  the  stand  within  a  period  of  20 
years.  This  is  done  by  a  series  of  thinnings  which  fall 
into  the  following  groups: 

1.  The  Preparatory  Cuttings •,  designed  to  prepare  for 
reproduction. 

2.  A  Seed  Cutting,  which  accomplishes  the  reproduc- 
tion. 

3.  The  Removal  Cuttings^  which  are  made  to  help  the 
seedling  growth  and  which  include  the  Final  Cutting. 

The  Preparatory  Cuttings. — The  objects  of  the  pre- 
paratory cuttings  are: 

1.  To  prepare  the  soil  for  the  reception  and  germina- 
tion of  the  seed.  A  dense  spruce  forest  is  characterized 


154          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

by  little  or  no  undergrowth,  and  by  a  deep  layer  of  litter 
and  humus.  This  forest  floor  is  a  very  poor  germina- 
ting bed,  and  the  first  requisite  for  reproduction  is  to  has- 
ten the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  material.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  preparatory  cutting,  which  admits  a 
free  circulation  of  the  air.  The  object  is  to  open  up  the 
forest  enough  to  bring  about  this  rapid  disintegration  of 
the  humus,  but  not  enough  to  allow  the  soil  to  run  wild 
with  weeds  and  brush. 

2.  A  second  object  is  to  stimulate  seed  production. 
The  first  thinnings  admit  more  light  to  the  crowns  and 
stimulate  assimilation,  and  hence  seed  reproduction. 

3.  Still  another  object  is  gradually  to  accustom  the 
trees  to  isolation,  and  make  them  more  windfirm. 

These  purposes  may  sometimes  be  accomplished  by 
making  a  single  thinning.  If,  however,  the  forest  is  very 
dense,  it  may  be  necessary,  on  account  of  danger  from 
windfall,  to  open  up  the  forest  gradually  by  two  or,  in 
some  cases,  three  thinnings. 

The  preparatory  cuttings  are  thinnings  which  open 
the  canopy  uniformly  throughout  the  stand.  The  trees 
taken  out  in  the  preparatory  cutting  are  primarily  of  the 
following  character: 

1.  Trees  infected  with  disease. 

2.  Trees  with  suppressed,  broken,  or  otherwise  de- 
fective crowns. 

3.  Trees  with  overdeveloped,  spreading  crowns. 

4.  Very  tall,  slender  trees  likely  to  be  overthrown  by 
the  wind. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM 

5.  Species  not  desired  in  the  next  crop. 

The  aim  is  to  leave  thrifty  dominant  trees  of  moder- 
ate size  regularly  distributed  over  the  area.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  leave  standing  trees  with  overdeveloped 
crowns,  as  well  as  undesired  species,  when  their  removal 
would  open  the  canopy  so  much  as  to  induce  a  growth  of 
weeds  and  brush  before  the  stand  is  ready  for  the  seed- 
cutting. 

The  preparatory  cutting  removes  from  25  to  40  per 
cent,  of  the  trees,  which  amounts  to  from  20  to  30  per 
cent,  of  the  volume.  The  crown  canopy  is  reduced  20  or 
25  per  cent.  The  aim  is  to  isolate  the  trees  very  moder- 
ately, leaving  them  spaced  from  3  to  5  feet  between  the 
peripheries  of  their  crowns. 

The  number  of  cuttings  needed,  the  severity  of  each, 
and  the  aggregate  opening  made,  depend  on  the  follow- 
ing factors: 

1.  Danger  from  Windfall. — The  greater  the  danger, 
the  more  gradual  must  be  the  opening. 

2.  Character  of  the  Forest  Floor. — The  thicker  the 
vegetable  cover,  the  heavier  the  cuttings.     The  slower 
the  natural  processes  of  decomposition,  the  heavier  the 
cuttings. 

3.  The  Character  oj    Canopy. — The  thicker  the  can- 
opy, the   denser   is  the  shade,    and,    consequently,   the 
heavier  are  the  openings  required. 

4.  Height  of  Canopy. — The  higher  the  canopy,   the 
denser   is  the   shade  cast,  and  hence  the  larger  are  the 
openings  required. 


1S6          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

5.  Soil. — The  richer  the  soil,  the  greater  the  tendency 
to  growth  of  weeds. 

The  preparatory  cuttings  are  successful  when  the  soil 
is  in  good  condition  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  about 
the  time  when  it  is  designed  to  make  the  seed  cutting. 
When  the  humus  and  litter  are  so  far  decomposed  that 
here  and  there  mineral  soil  appears,  the  ground  is  in 
receptive  condition.  Usually  there  is  at  the  same  time 
a  light  growth  of  grass  and  tolerant  annuals. 

In  a  forest  in  which  there  is  a  deep  humus  to  begin 
with,  the  time  required  to  bring  about  the  desired  con- 
dition of  the  forest  floor  varies  greatly  with  different 
soils,  and  with  humus  derived  from  different  species. 
Roughly,  from  three  to  ten  years  may  be  required. 

The  Seed-Cutting. — As  soon  as  the  soil  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive the  seed,  the  seed-cutting  may  be  made.  This  is  a 
heavy  thinning,  made  through  the  stand,  and  designed 
to  establish  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  start  of  re- 
production and  for  the  life  of  the  seedlings  during  the 
first  few  years.  It  is  the  aim  to  make  this  cutting  during 
a  seed  year,  in  order  that  these  new  conditions  may  imme- 
diately follow  the  fall  of  seed.  If  the  soil  has  duly  bene- 
fited from  the  preparatory  cuttings,  and  the  seed-cutting  is 
made  during  a  good  seed-year,  one  cutting  for  seed  is  all 
that  is  necessary.  The  seed-cutting  removes  from  25  to 
50  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the  stand.  It  reduces  the 
density  of  cover  to  30  or  50  per  cent. 

The  principles  of  selecting  the  trees  for  cutting  are 
similar  to  those  governing  the  preparatory  thinning, 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  157 

except  that  the  seed-cutting  is  a  much  heavier  thinning. 
The  aim  is  to  cut  such  defective,  malformed,  and  sup- 
pressed trees  as  are  left  from  the  preparatory  cuttings. 
The  larger  trees  with  spreading  crowns  are  taken,  because 
of  their  possible  danger  to  the  reproduction  if  left  for 
later  cutting.  Trees  of  undesirable  species,  likely  to  re- 
produce themselves  in  competition  with  the  good  species, 
are  also  cut.  Just  as  in  the  preparatory  cuttings,  the 
trees  to  be  left  are  of  moderate  size,  and  chosen  from  the 
dominant  class.  They  should  be  thrifty  and  capable  of 
rapid  growth  during  the  remainder  of  the  period  of  re- 
production. They  should  also  be  capable  of  producing 
seed,  since  they  not  only  must  produce  the  greater  part  of 
the  seed  for  the  first  reproduction,  but  are  also  counted 
on  to  seed  up  any  gaps  that  may  occur. 

In  general  character,  the  thinning  is  uniform — that  is, 
it  extends  over  the  whole  stand.  Usually,  however,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  be  very  precise  in  spacing  the  trees  at  a 
uniform  distance.  It  may  happen  that  a  given  site  is 
subject  to  danger  from  frost,  and  that  protection  of  the 
small  trees  in  the  earliest  period  requires  a  uniform  cover. 
Even  if  the  trees  are  not  regularly  spaced,  a  uniform 
distribution  of  seed  may  usually  be  secured.  If  the  seed 
is  distributed  by  the  wind,  small  openings  here  and  there 
would  be  readily  covered  with  seed,  as  well  as  the  ground 
under  the  trees.  With  trees  having  heavy  seed,  a  good 
distribution  is  obtained  if  the  seed-cutting  is  made  after 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit  in  a  seed-year.  There  is  then  a 
production  by  all  seed-trees  left  from  the  preparatory  cut- 


158  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

tings,  and  the  ground  should  be  amply  covered  in  a  uni- 
form manner.  A  slightly  irregular  thinning  would  not 
be  unfavorable  to  the  young  growth  from  the  standpoint 
of  protection  from  drought,  for  there  would  usually  be 
enough  side  shade  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  seed- 
lings. With  trees  of  only  moderate  tolerance  an  irregu- 
lar thinning  might  often  be  better  than  a  uniform  one, 
because  it  would  admit  a  certain  measure  of  side  light  to 
young  growth  standing  under  slightly  too  heavy  shade. 
The  best  rule  is  to  make  the  thinning  uniform  so  far  as 
the  conditions  permit,  but  not  to  make  undue  sacrifice  to 
uniformity  where,  for  one  reason  or  another,  certain  trees 
ought  to  be  removed. 

In  judging  how  heavy  to  make  the  seed-cutting,  the 
forester  has  in  mind  the  distribution  of  seed,  and  the 
maintenance  of  such  a  degree  of  shade  as  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  new  crop  from  drought  and  frost,  and  to  hold 
in  check  the  growth  of  weeds.  The  usual  rule  is  to 
leave  only  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  accomplish  this  pur- 
pose, in  order  that  the  uncovering  of  the  crop  later  on 
will  be  attended  by  the  least  possible  danger. 

If  the  preparatory  cutting  has  been  successful  and 
reproduction  is  pretty  certain,  a  heavier  cutting  would  be 
made  than  when  reproduction  is  uncertain.  Just  how  ex- 
tensive an  opening  of  the  canopy  is  best  for  establishing 
and  for  protecting  reproduction  must  depend  in  each  case 
on  the  species,  the  site,  and  the  condition  of  the  ground. 

In  Europe,  it  is  often  customary  to  aid  the  reproduc- 
tion by  artificial  measures.  Thus,  if  there  is  a  growth  of 


THE   SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  159 

grass  and  weeds  which  will  interfere  with  germination 
and  the  establishment  of  the  reproduction,  the  soil  is 
sometimes  broken  up  to  expose  the  mineral  soil.  One 
method  is  to  break  the  ground  cover  with  mattocks  at 
intervals  of  5  or  6  feet,  exposing  about  a  square  foot 
of  soil  in  each  place.  Another  method,  used  when  the 
soil  and  topography  permit,  is  to  plow  furrows  among 
the  trees;  and  yet  another  in  common  use  is  to  turn  hogs 
into  the  woods  before  the  seed-year,  to  work  up  the  soil. 

In  some  instances  a  certain  amount  of  planting  is 
done  after  the  seed-cutting.  This  would  be  done  when 
natural  seeding  is  uncertain,  and  the  species  requires  shel- 
ter during  youth.  If  no  shelter  were  needed,  the  stand 
would  be  cut  and  the  trees  planted  on  the  clearing.  The 
planting  in  advance  of  cutting  usually  has  for  its  object 
the  maintenance  of  a  certain  species  in  mixture.  It  is 
a  common  measure  in  mixed  beech  and  spruce  forests, 
where  the  natural  reproduction  of  beech  is  better  than 
that  of  spruce.  The  young  spruce-trees  are  planted  near 
stumps  and  rocks,  where  there  will  be  the  least  possible 
damage  by  the  later  logging. 

When  a  seed-cutting  fails  to  yield  good  reproduction, 
and  the  ground  is  beginning  to  be  covered  with  weeds 
and  brush  likely  to  retard  reproduction  from  later  seed- 
years,  planting  is  commonly  used  to  complete  the  new 
stand.  If  the  young  growth  requires  shelter,  the  planting 
is  done  as  soon  as  the  fail-spots  are  located;  otherwise 
the  stand  is  cleared  rapidly,  and  the  planting  done  after 
the  final  cutting. 


160 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 


FIG.  33. — Just  before  the  Removal  of  the  Last  Trees  under  the  Shelter- 
wood  System.  Young  Growth  has  been  Secured  over  the  Whole 
Area.  Austria. 


FIG.  34. — After  the  First  Work  in  an  Open  Irregular  Stand.  The  Cut- 
tings Followed  the  Principles  of  the  Shelterwood  System.  Western 
Yellow  Pine.  Black  Hills  National  Forest,  South  Dakota. 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  161 

Very  frequently  there  are  at  the  time  of  the  seed- 
cutting  groups  of  advance  growth.  Any  such  groups 
as  are  thrifty  and  will  develop  well  after  releasing,  are 
carefully  protected.  The  shading  trees  are  cut,  so  far  as 
there  is  need  of  more  light;  and,  if  desirable,  a  group 
is  entirely  uncovered.  Useless  advance  growth  which  is 
likely  to  interfere  with  the  new  crop  is  cut  out.  Such 
useless  advance  growth  consists  of  poor  species,  poorly 
formed  and  unsound  trees,  and  trees  so  much  suppressed 
that  they  cannot  recover  and  become  of  value. 

The  Removal  Cuttings. — Just  as  soon  as  the  young 
growth  is  well  established  and  no  longer  needs  protection 
from  drought  and  frost,  the  shelter-trees  are  removed. 
Sometimes  this  can  be  done  in  one  cutting  without  dan- 
ger to  the  seedlings  from  the  sudden  exposure;  but  it 
is  usually  better  to  remove  the  shelterwood  by  a  series 
of  cuttings. 

The  first  removal  cutting  is  made  as  soon  as  the  seed- 
lings begin  to  need  a  greater  amount  of  light.  As  a  rule, 
this  is  within  three  or  four  years  after  the  seed-cutting. 
The  forester  must  watch  the  young  growth  to  see  if  it  is 
suffering  from  shading.  If  the  seedlings  are  stunted, 
weak-looking,  and  unhealthy  of  color,  and  have  a  sparse 
foliage,  or  if  they  are  found  to  be  bending  to  one  side  in 
their  search  for  light,  this  is  an  indication  that  a  thinning 
must  be  made. 

The  removal  cuttings  are  not  made  uniformly  over 
the  whole  stand,  but  are  necessarily  irregular,  because 
some  portions  of  the  new  crop  require  more  light  than 


162  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

others,  or  some  are  in  a  position  to  stand  a  greater 
amount  of  exposure.  Ordinarily  three  or  four  removal 
cuttings  are  required  in  the  best  practise.  These  are 
made  at  intervals  of  from  2  to  4  years. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  young  trees  have  entered  the  stage 
of  rapid  growth  and  are  out  of  danger  from  exposure,  the 
final  cutting  is  made.  The  last  trees  are  usually  taken  off 
in  about  ten  years  after  the  seed-cutting. 

The  rapidity  of  the  removal  of  the  shelterwood  neces- 
sarily depends  on  the  species  and  on  the  site  conditions. 
The  operation  progresses  more  rapidly  with  intolerant 
than  with  tolerant  species,  with  drought-enduring  than 
with  moisture- loving  species,  with  frost-hardy  than  with 
frost-sensitive  species,  and  more  rapidly  on  favorable  than 
unfavorable  sites. 

The  most  serious  problem  in  the  removal  cuttings  is 
the  damage  to  the  young  growth.  With  hardwoods,  this 
is  very  small,  because  the  young  trees  bend  over  under 
the  weight  of  the  falling  trees,  and  many  of  them  recover 
when  released.  The  damage  is  greatest  with  conifers. 
If  the  reproduction  is  abundant  and  the  logging  done 
with  care,  this  damage  may  be  kept  down  to  an  amount 
so  small  as  not  to  materially  affect  the  final  crop.  In 
Europe,  it  is  customary  to  plant  up  the  blanks  made  by 
damage  in  the  final  cuttings  or  by  other  causes. 

Shelterwood  Cuttings  in  Strips 

This  is  a  modification  of  the  method  just  described, 
used  principally  when  the  uniform  opening  of  a  large 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  163 

stand  endangers  the  trees  from  windfall.  The  cuttings 
at  a  given  time  are  made  in  narrow  strips,  instead  of  over 
the  whole  stand.  Beginning  on  the  lee  side  and  progres- 
sing against  the  wind,  successive  strips  are  worked  over 
and  reproduced  until  the  whole  stand  is  covered.  The 
first  operations  are  the  preparatory  cuttings  in  the  first 
strip.  After  a  few  years  the  second  strip  is  taken  in 
hand,  and  preparatory  cuttings  are  made  about  the  time 
the  first  strip  is  ready  for  the  seed-cutting.  When  the 
first  strip  is  ready  for  the  removal  cuttings  and  the  second 
for  the  seed-cutting,  a  preparatory  cutting  is  made  in  the 
third  strip,  and  so  on. 

The  conduct  of  the  cuttings  in  this  manner  has  cer- 
tain advantages,  as  follows: 

1.  Since  each  operation  is  in  a  narrow  strip  in  the 
lee  of  an  uncut  block  of  timber,  the  danger  from  wind- 
fall is  less  than    when   the    whole  stand   is  opened    at 
one  time.       This    permits  the   use   of   the  shelterwood 
system    under  conditions  which  would    otherwise   pro- 
hibit  its  use. 

2.  The  protection  from  the  wind  gives  a  freer  hand 
in  conducting  the  cuttings;   in  many  cases,  fewer  opera- 
tions in  the  series  are  required,  and  heavier  individual 
cuttings  may  be  made. 

3.  The  side  shade  is  beneficial,  while  the  protection 
from  the  wind  lessens  danger  from  drought. 

4.  When  used  with  species  having  light  seed,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  there  is  an  abundant  distribution  of  seed 
over  a  given  strip  from   the  bordering  trees.     This  is 


164  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

particularly  valuable  in  filling  gaps,  especially  after  the 
final  cutting. 

The  width  of  the  strips  varies  with  conditions,  and 
depends  chiefly  on  the  danger  from  windfall.  The  greater 
this  danger  is,  the  narrower  must  be  the  strips.  They 
usually  range  in  width  from  100  to  600  feet.  The  period 
of  reproduction  with  a  given  stand  is  the  same  as  in  the 
uniform  system,  namely,  from  20  to  30  years,  usually  the 
former.  If  a  stand  is  so  long  that  a  series  will  not  be 
complete  within  the  assigned  period  of  reproduction, 
two  or  more  cutting  series  are  made  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  described  on  page  133.  The  result  is  an  approxi- 
mately even-aged  stand,  with  the  trees  at  the  side  where 
cutting  began  somewhat  older  than  at  the  other  side. 
The  difference  in  age  would  be  hardly  noticeable  when 
the  stand  reaches  maturity. 

Shelterwood  Cuttings  in  Groups 

This  is  a  further  modification  of  the  principles  of  the 
shelterwood  system,  by  which  the  cuttings  are  concen- 
trated at  special  points  in  the  stand,  and  reproduction  is 
secured  in  groups,  instead  of  in  strips. 

The  system  is  used  in  mountain  forests  where  breaks 
have  occurred  and  groups  of  advance  growth  have  been 
established.  These  groups  are  used  as  centers  of  repro- 
duction. The  cuttings  begin  about  them  and  progress 
radially  from  them.  Ultimately,  all  groups  are  merged 
together. 

To  illustrate  concretely,  suppose  that  in  a  given  ma- 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  165 

ture  stand  of  spruce  and  fir,  there  are  a  number  of  groups 
of  advance  growth,  from  20  to  50  feet  in  width,  of 
the  character  shown  in  Fig.  30.  The  center  of  a  given 
group  stands  under  an  open  or  broken  canopy,  and  there 
the  trees  are  the  tallest.  The  group  extends  under  the 
denser  portion  of  the  canopy,  obtaining  enough  side 
light  from  the  central  opening  for  life. 

The  first  cutting,  which  may  be  called  the  primary 
cutting,  is  designed  to  uncover  the  larger  of  the  young 
growth,  to  give  more  light  to  the  less  vigorous  trees  near 
the  edge  of  the  group,  and  to  induce  an  extension  of  the 
group  in  all  directions. 

It  might  happen  that  an  actual  clearing  would  be 
made  over  the  center  of  the  group,  while  over  the  border 
trees  there  would  be  a  heavy  thinning,  and  still  beyond 
there  would  be  a  lighter  thinning.  In  fact,  one  would 
actually  be  making  a  final  cutting  over  the  center  of  the 
group  and  a  removal  cutting  over  the  remainder  of  it, 
while  immediately  beyond  the  edge  of  the  group  the 
thinning  would  resemble  in  severity  a  seed-cutting. 
One  could  go  farther,  and  if  the  forest  were  dense 
immediately  beyond  this  point,  a  thinning  resembling 
a  preparatory  cutting  could  be  made  in  a  still  wider 
circle. 

All  the  groups  are  thinned  as  just  described.  Sup- 
pose that  the  thinnings  have  been  successful,  and  that 
reproduction  has  taken  place  beyond  and  around  the  sev- 
eral groups.  They  will  then  be  extended  a  distance  of 
from  50  to  100  feet.  A  secondary  cutting  is  then  re- 


166          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

quired  to  continue  the  operation  which  has  already 
been  started.  In  the  secondary  cutting  more  trees  are 
taken  from  over  the  existing  groups,  according  to  their 
need,  and  the  newly  reproduced  circle  is  opened  up  by 
a  heavy  removal  thinning.  The  portion  which  was  in- 
cluded in  the  previous  preparatory  cutting  is  thinned  for 
seed,  and  if  necessary  a  preparatory  cutting  is  made  still 
farther  into  the  woods.  These  secondary  cuttings  are 
made  not  necessarily  in  all  groups  at  the  same  time,  but 
in  any  groups  whose  condition  requires  treatment.  The 
result  of  the  gradual  extension  of  these  groups  is  that 
they  ultimately  are  merged  together,  and  the  whole  stand 
is  reproduced. 

As  a  rule,  a  long  period  of  reproduction  is  used  to 
work  over  a  whole  stand — usually  from  30  to  40  years. 
The  result  is  a  stand  much  less  even-aged  than  that  ob- 
tained by  the  other  methods.  The  advance  growth  is 
often  from  20  to  30  years  old,  thus  making  a  total  varia- 
tion in  age  in  the  new  stand  of  from  50  to  60  years.  In 
spite  of  the  wide  difference  in  the  age  of  the  trees,  the 
new  stand  is  essentially  regular  in  character,  and  is  in  no 
sense  a  selection  forest. 

The  Two-Storied  System 

This  is  an  intensive  system  used  in  Europe,  having 
for  its  object  the  isolation  of  the  best  trees  during  the  last 
half  of  the  rotation  in  order  to  secure  a  maximum  growth 
in  diameter  and  volume.  It  is  applied  to  even-aged 
stands  of  species  which  are  windfirm  and  which  have 


THE  SHELTERWOOD   SYSTEM 


167 


168          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF.  HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

light  or  moderately  light  foliage,  such  as  pine,  oak,  and 
larch.  When  a  given  stand  has  reached  its  main  height- 
growth  and  the  boles  are  well  cleared  by  natural  pruning, 
a  heavy  thinning  is  made  which  removes  from  40  to  60 
per  cent,  of  the  trees.  This  thinning  takes  out  the  sup- 
pressed, partially  suppressed,  and  defective  trees.  Those 
left  standing  are  the  best  dominant  trees  in  the  stand. 
Each  tree  is  isolated,  and  will  produce  its  greatest  pos- 
sible growth.  Usually  there  is  only  one  thinning,  but  if 
the  trees  all  tend  to  be  slender  and  subject  to  possible 
danger  from  windfall,  two  thinnings  are  made,  the  first  a 
light  one  and  the  second  establishing  just  the  conditions 
desired.  This  thinning  is  made  in  pine  stands  at  an  age 
of  from  40  to  50  years,  in  oak  at  from  50  to  60  years,  and 
in  larch  at  from  35  to  40  years. 

The  stand  is  then  underplanted  with  some  tolerant 
species  like  birch,  hornbeam,  spruce,  or  fir,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  site.  This  constitutes  an  under-story 
which  protects  the  soil  from  deterioration.  The  lower 
crop  is  of  tolerant  species,  and  is  able  to  live  under  the 
open  stand  of  the  older  trees.  Usually  the  crowns  of  the 
upper  story  spread  rapidly,  and  it  is  necessary,  about  once 
in  ten  years,  to  make  a  further  thinning  to  sustain  rapid 
growth  and  prevent  excessive  injury  to  the  under-story 
by  crowding.  At  the  end  of  the  rotation  of  the  upper 
story,  the  whole  stand  is  cleared,  including  the  lower 
story,  and  restocked  artificially  to  a  stand  of  the  species 
composing  the  upper  story.  If  the  rotation  is  120 
years,  the  trees  of  the  upper  story  contain  material  of 


THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM  169 

high  grade  and  value,  of  a  size  which  would  be  pro- 
duced under  other  systems  only  in  about  150  years. 
The  understory  may  be  about  60  years  old,  more  or 
less  crippled,  and  of  small  dimensions.  It  is  used 
for  cordwood. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   COPPICE  SYSTEMS 

Simple  Coppice 

UNDER  this  system  a  stand  is  cut  clear,  and  reproduc- 
tion takes  place  by  sprouts  from  the  stumps.  It  is  ap- 
plicable only  to  species  which  sprout  vigorously  after 
cutting,  such  as  chestnut,  oak,  maple,  hickory,  ash,  tulip, 
basswood,  locust,  birch,  and  certain  other  hardwoods.  It 
is  not  applicable  to  conifers,  since,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
these  do  not  sprout  from  the  stump  at  all. 

The  simple  coppice  system  has  for  many  years  been 
used  in  a  rough,  haphazard  way  by  the  farmers  of  the 
hardwood  region  of  the  Northeast.  Conspicuous  illustra- 
tions of  its  use  are  found  in  southern  New  England, 
southern  New  York,  and  northern  New  Jersey.  For- 
merly many  iron  mines  were  operated  in  this  region,  and 
consequently  there  was  a  demand  for  charcoal.  The 
hardwood  forests  were  cleared  off.  The  stands  which 
took  their  place  were  again  cleared  off  as  soon  as  large 
enough  for  use,  reproduction  taking  place  by  sprouts. 
As  the  population  increased,  demand  for  fuel  succeeded 
that  for  charcoal,  after  the  mines  were  closed,  so  that  in 
many  sections  it  is  still  the  custom  to  clear  off  the  wood 
at  intervals  of  from  25  to  40  years. 

170 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS 


171 


It  is  a  very  simple  system  to  practise,  for  there  is  no 
skill  to  be  exercised  in  selecting  trees  for  cutting,  and 
reproduction  takes  place  promptly  and  abundantly  by 
natural  means,  and  without  expense.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  principles  governing  sprout  reproduction 


FIG.    36. —Simple  Coppice  on  a  very  Short  Rotation,  Illustrated  by 
Willow  Culture. 

which  must  be  observed  in  the  continued  practise  of  the 
system.  If  these  are  ignored,  the  forests  will  deteriorate 
and  their  productiveness  will  steadily  diminish.  Exactly 
this  has  happened  in  Xew  England.  No  attention  has 
been  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  forest  when  cut,  the 
season  of  cutting,  or  the  manner  of  cutting  the  stumps. 
Fires  have  run  through  the  woods  repeatedly  and  injured 


172          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  trees,  reducing  their  vitality  and  sprouting  vigor. 
The  result  has  been  that  many  stumps  fail  to  sprout,  the 
density  of  stocking  by  good  species  is  reduced,  and  the 
growth  and  final  yield  are  greatly  diminished. 

Willow  culture  is  an  example  of  simple  coppice,  han- 
dled on  a  small  scale  and  on  a  very  short  rotation. 

Age  of  Cutting. — There  is  an  age  of  maximum  sprout- 
ing vigor,  which  varies  with  different  species  and  under 
different  conditions  of  site.  It  occurs  in  early  life,  and 
ordinarily  under  25  years.  There  is  also  a  maximum 
age  limit  of  sprouting.  This  may,  in  individual  cases,  be 
over  100  years.  It  is  later  with  trees  from  the  seed  than 
with  trees  that  have  originated  from  sprouts.  There  is 
a  point  in  the  life  of  a  stand  of  sprouts  when  certain  indi- 
viduals become  defective  and  weakened,  and  reach  the 
limit  of  their  power  to  send  up  vigorous  shoots.  If  a 
stand  is  cut  after  this  period,  some  stumps  fail  to  sprout, 
and  reproduction  by  this  means  is  incomplete.  This 
period  is  usually  from  25  to  40  years  of  age. 

In  simple  coppice  management  the  stands  must  be 
cut  young  enough  to  insure  sprouting  from  practically  all 
stumps,  and  the  cutting  should  take  place  as  near  the  age 
of  greatest  sprouting  vigor  as  practicable.  In  Europe, 
oak  coppice  is  often  cut  on  a  rotation  of  from  10  to 
1 5  years.  Experiments  have  shown  that  oak  at  this  age 
sprouts  most  vigorously  and  consistently,  and  that  the 
coppice  system  of  regular  cropping  can  be  maintained 
more  successfully,  and  with  less  work  of  replacement  and 
fewer  failures,  than  with  a  longer  rotation.  In  some 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  173 

cases  the  trees  are  allowed  to  grow  to  be  25  or  30 
years  old,  but  where  larger  timber  is  required  one  of  the 
modified  coppice  methods  is  commonly  used. 

In  this  country  the  market  is  seldom  good  enough  to 
cut  trees  below  25  years  old.  In  certain  places  there  is 
a  market  for  small  material  at  brick-yards  and  lime-kilns, 
and  for  domestic  fuel.  Under  these  conditions  the  trees 
are  cut  on  a  rotation  of  about  25  years.  More  often,  it 
does  not  pay  to  cut  the  stand  until  at  least  ties  and  poles 
can  be  obtained  from  the  largest  trees.  This  means  a 
rotation  of  40  years  or  more.  At  so  late  an  age  the 
simple  coppice  method  is  uncertain  of  reproduction,  and 
the  pole-wood  or  system  of  holding  over  reserves  is 
preferable. 

Season  of  Cutting. — The  trees  should  be  cut  during 
the  season  of  vegetative  rest.  In  general,  in  the  climate 
of  New  England,  any  time  from  September  15th  to 
April  1st  is  favorable.  Cutting  in  April  results  in  good 
reproduction,  but  at  this  time  there  is  danger  of  injury  to 
the  stumps  by  the  peeling  of  the  bark  and  bruising  in 
removing  the  wood. 

Care  in  Cutting. — The  best  sprout  reproduction  is 
obtained  by  cutting  low,  smooth  stumps.  Where  a  very 
short  rotation  is  used,  as  in  Europe,  the  manner  of  sur- 
facing the  stump  is  even  of  greater  importance  than  under 
the  conditions  in  this  country.  The  European  forester 
takes  care  that  a  smooth  cut  is  made  on  a  slant,  to  shed 
off  the  water.  A  ragged  or  cup-shaped  surface  tends  to 
hold  water  and  hasten  decay.  A  short  rotation  means  the 


174  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

production  of  small  trees  and  saplings.  The  stumps  are 
so  small  that  they  are  rapidly  covered  over  by  the  new 
growth.  If  the  stumps  are  cut  properly  they  are  covered 
before  decay  sets  in.  With  larger  trees,  such  as  are  cut 
in  this  country,  it  is  often  not  possible  for  the  new  growth 
to  cover  the  whole  stump;  but  low  stumps  mean  vigor- 
ous sprouting,  little  hindrance  to  individual  development 
by  the  sprouts,  and  much  less  danger  from  decay  than 
is  apt  to  occur  after  careless  cutting. 

The  Cutting. — It  is  important  to  remove  the  wood 
from  the  clearing  as  soon  as  possible.  Where  the  wood 
is  piled  and  left  in  place  for  a  season,  a  good  many 
stumps  are  inevitably  covered  by  the  stacks,  and  thereby 
prevented  from  sprouting.  Moreover,  when  the  wood  is 
taken,  it  is  usually  done  by  driving  on  the  area  with 
a  team  and  heavy  wagon.  Large  numbers  of  one-year 
sprouts  are  broken  off  and  otherwise  damaged  in  this 
way. 

One  of  the  serious  problems  in  this  country  is  the  dis- 
posal of  the  brush.  Ordinarily  the  farmer  throws  the 
brush  in  windrows.  They  may  actually  cover  about  25 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  cut  over.  These  piles  cover 
a  large  number  of  stumps,  and  either  prevent  them  from 
sprouting  or  cripple  the  sprouts  enough  to  make  them 
useless. 

Maintenance  of  Density. — If  the  stand  is  in  healthy 
condition  when  cut,  the  stumps  sprout  vigorously  and 
a  full  stand  is  the  result.  It  often  happens  that  certain 
stumps  have  failed  to- sprout,  or  through  previous  abuse 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  175 

the  stumps  are  too  far  apart.  Sometimes  new  stock 
creeps  in  by  natural  seeding.  But  under  the  simple 
coppice  method  the  rotation  is  short,  and  the  trees  do 
not  bear  much  seed.  Therefore  such  seeding  as  occurs 
comes  largely  from  neighboring  lots  containing  old  seed- 
bearing  trees. 

In  Europe,  where  the  rotation  is  very  short,  natural 
seeding  is  never  relied  on  to  fill  gaps  in  the  reproduction, 
but  resort  is  had  to  artificial  replacement.  \Yhen  a 
sprout  stand  is  cleared,  it  is  closely  examined  with  ref- 
erence to  the  condition  and  vigor  of  the  trees.  Spots 
where  there  are  no  stumps,  and  where  stumps  are  likely 
to  fail,  are  filled  by  planting.  In  oak  coppice,  for  exam- 
ple, it  is  customary  to  plant  in  spaces  as  large  as  15 
feet  square.  The  custom  is  to  plant  oak  transplants 
which  have  stood  two  years  in  the  nursery.  Ordinarily 
these  are  cut  back  when  planted.  That  is,  the  seedling 
is  planted,  and  then  cut  off  at  the  ground.  It  throws  up 
a  vigorous  sprout  and  grows  up  with  the  remainder  of 
the  stand.  Such  a  plan  naturally  presupposes  a  regular 
organization,  with  a  nursery  and  with  men  in  charge 
of  the  property  who  are  trained  in  such  work. 

Arrangement  of  Cutting. — In  this  country  owners  of 
sprout  forests  cut  a  lot  here  and  there  as  the  trees  come 
to  marketable  size.  In  Europe,  the  system  is  extensively 
used  in  the  management  of  communal  and  government 
forests.  In  such  conditions  the  forests  are  so  organized 
that  an  approximately  equal  yield  is  secured  each  year. 
This  is  accomplished  by  dividing  the  forest  into  as  many 


176 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


lots  as  there  are  years  in  the  rotation.  If  the  trees  are  to 
grow  twenty  years,  there  will  then  be  twenty  divisions, 
one  of  which  is  cut  each  year.  After  the  work  has  been 
in  operation  one  rotation,  there  are  20  ages  represented, 
and  one  lot  is  coming  to  the  rotation  age  each  year.  If 
the  quality  of  site  is  about  uniform  over  the  whole  for- 


FIG.  37. — Distribution  of  Annual  Cutting  Areas  in  a  Forest  Managed  under 
the  Simple  Coppice  System  on  a  Rotation  of  Twenty  Years.  A  Com- 
munal Forest  in  Northern  Germany. 

est,  these  lots  are  made  about  equal  in  size.  If  there  are 
different  types  of  land,  with  different  qualities  of  site, 
and  hence  with  different  yield  capacities,  the  lots  are 
made  somewhat  larger  on  the  poor  soil  than  on  the 
good  soil,  so  that  the  yield  in  material  will  be  about 
the  same  each  year.  The  diagram  above  shows  a 
German  communal  forest  divided  into  20  annual  cut- 
ting areas. 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  177 

Holding  Over  Reserves 

Under  this  system  all  trees  in  a  sprout  stand  are 
cut,  except  a  certain  number  of  selected  individuals  left 
scattered  over  the  area  to  remain  during  a  second  rota- 
tion. Take,  for  example,  a  stand  of  oak,  chestnut,  hick- 
ory, and  maple  sprouts  25  years  old.  Certain  straight, 
thrifty  trees  are  designated  to  be  left,  and  the  remainder 
cut  clear,  as  in  the  simple  coppice  method.  At  the 
end  of  the  next  rotation,  the  main  stand  will  be  com- 
posed of  2  5  year  old  sprouts  with  scattered  individuals 
50  years  old. 

The  purpose  of  this  system  is  to  use  the  land  chiefly 
for  the  production  of  small  wood,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
obtain  a  certain  amount  of  large  timber.  It  is  the  same 
principle  as  the  system  of  reserving  thrifty  standards, 
described  on  page  118,  applied  to  sprout  forests.  The 
rotation  is  short,  returns  are  frequent,  and  there  is  se- 
cured a  measure  of  the  higher  and  more  valuable  grades 
of  timber. 

When  the  stand  is  ready  to  cut,  the  forester  marks  the 
reserves.  He  aims  to  leave,  regularly  distributed  over 
the  area,  as  many  trees  as  possible  without  interfering 
with  the  reproduction  from  the  stumps  of  those  cut.  As 
sprouts  do  not  thrive  under  cover,  there  must  be  no  serrh 
blance  of  a  canopy  of  reserves,  but  the  individuals  must 
be  scattered.  The  number  left  depends  on  the  toler- 
ance of  the  coppiced  trees,  which  necessarily  varies  with 
different  species  and  under  different  conditions.  This 


178          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

number  varies,  further,  with  the  age  at  which  the  sprouts 
are  cut.  If  25  years  is  the  rotation,  more  reserves  can 
be  left  than  with  a  40-year  rotation,  because  the  trees 
have  a  much  smaller  spread  of  crown.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  number  of  reserves  varies  from  20  to  40  per  acre. 

The  trees  chosen  for  reserves  are  well-formed,  domi- 
nant trees  with  a  moderate  crown  development.  They 
must  be  sound,  thrifty,  and  windfirm.  Trees  standing 
singly  are  better  than  those  growing  in  clumps,  though 
it  is  often  necessary  to  leave  some  of  the  latter  class. 

Under  this  system  the  returns  are  greater  than  under 
the  simple  coppice.  The  total  amount  of  wood  produced 
would  not  differ  materially  in  cubic  volume.  The  vol- 
ume of  coppice  would  be  somewhat  less  because  of  the 
space  occupied  by  the  reserves  and  the  retarding  of  the 
growth  of  shoots  affected  by  their  shade.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  loss  of  growth  of  the  coppice  would 
be  fully  counterbalanced  by  the  yield  of  the  reserves  in 
cubic  volume,  and  more  than  equalled  in  value.  The 
reserves  are  isolated,  and  have  a  maximum  growth. 
They  reach  a  size  in  50  years  what  it  would  take  in  a 
closed  stand  60  or  more  years  to  secure. 

Pole-Wood  Coppice 

In  most  hardwood  forests  the  simple  coppice  system 
on  a  short  rotation  is  not  practicable,  on  account  of  the 
lack  of  market  for  small  material.  The  rotation  is  then 
extended  until  the  trees,  or  a  portion  of  them,  are  large 
enough  for  piles,  poles,  ties,  or  lumber.  The  age  of 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  179 

cutting  in  this  case  is  considerably  later  than  the  period 
of  best  sprouting  capacity.  Reproduction  by  sprouts 
alone  cannot,  therefore,  be  relied  upon,  but  this  must 
be  supplemented  by  establishing  many  seedlings,  nat- 
urally or  by  planting.  The  production  of  the  pole  class 
of  timber  and  the  reproduction  partly  by  sprouts  and 
partly  from  the  seed,  may  be  called  the  Pole-Wood  Coppice 
System. 

Use  in  the  Hardwood  Region  of  the  East. — This  is 
the  method  by  which  farmers'  woodlots  in  southern  New 
England  are  often  treated;  there,  however,  it  is  practised 
without  design  and  with  a  poor  degree  of  success  from 
the  standpoint  of  forest  production.  It  is  customary  to 
cut  the  forest  clear  when  a  profitable  sale  can  be  made. 
The  large  trees  are  used  for  lumber  or  ties,  the  straight 
trees  for  poles,  piles,  and  posts.  The  small,  defective, 
and  crooked  trees,  and  the  tops,  are  used  for  cordwood. 

The  trees  are  cut  when  from  40  to  80  years  old. 
Some  of  the  stumps  sprout  vigorously,  some  throw  up 
weak  shoots,  and  some  do  not  sprout  at  all.  It  usually 
happens  that  a  stand  of  second-growth  hardwoods  over 
40  years  old  does  not  have  a  complete  canopy.  This 
is  especially  true  of  stands  originating  largely  from 
sprouts.  The  small,  scattered  breaks  in  the  canopy  admit 
light,  heat,  and  a  free  circulation  of  air  to  the  soil.  As  a 
result,  there  may  be  started  some  advance  reproduction 
from  the  seed.  If  this  advance  reproduction  is  plentiful 
at  the  time  of  cutting,  and  there  are  no  fires  to  destroy 
it,  the  reproduction  by  sprouts  will  be  largely  supple- 


180 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


mented  by  seedlings.  In  this  way,  many  hardwood 
staads,  which  are  cut  at  an  age  when  sprout  reproduction 
is  uncertain,  are  followed  by  surprisingly  good  second 
growth.  Usually,  however,  fires  run  over  the  ground 
at  frequent  intervals,  or  cattle  are  allowed  to  graze 


FIG.  38.— A  Stand  of  Hardwoods,  Composed  of  Trees  of  Sprout 
and  Seedling  Origin,  after  the  First  Cutting  under  the  Polewood 
Coppice  System.  Southern  New  York. 

through  the  woods;  and  at  the  time  of  cutting  there  are 
very  few  seedlings,  or  none  at  all,  so  that  the  succeeding 
stand  is  composed  chiefly  of  the  shoots  from  such  stumps 
as  may  retain  their  sprouting  capacity.  There  are  wide 
gaps  between  the  clumps  of  sprouts,  and  the  stand  is 
inferior  in  form,  quality,  and  yield  to  the  previous  one. 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  181 

Continuance  of  such  treatment  results  in  steady  deteriora- 
tion of  the  forest. 

The  Reproduction  Cuttings. — The  poor  results  of 
this  careless  and  haphazard  way  of  treating  second-growth 
stands  are  avoided  by  the  systematic  application  of  the 
pole-wood  system.  The  aim  of  the  method  is  to  secure 
an  advance  reproduction  of  seedlings  wherever  there  is  a 
possibility  that  sprout  reproduction  will  not  be  complete. 
This  is  accomplished  by  making  a  thinning  to  open  the 
canopy  sufficiently  for  natural  reproduction.  When  the 
seedlings  have  become  established,  the  rest  of  the  timber 
is  removed  in  one  or  more  operations. 

This  system  is  in  reality,  therefore,  the  shelterwood 
system  with  a  short  rotation  and  the  use  of  both  seedling 
and  sprout  reproduction.  Ordinarily  there  is  no  need 
of  a  preparatory  cutting.  Most  of  the  hardwoods  with 
which  it  will  be  used  are  intolerant  of  shade,  and  do  not 
form  a  heavy  canopy.  Usually  there  is  not  a  heavy  layer 
of  litter  and  humus.  Since  the  trees  are  windfirm,  a 
preparatory  cutting  as  a  precaution  against  windfall  is 
not  needed.  The  first  cutting  is,  therefore,  a  seed-cut- 
ting. 

The  selection  of  the  trees  in  this  seed-cutting  de- 
pends primarily  on  how  far  reproduction  by  sprouts  can 
be  counted  on.  If  there  is  uncertainty  as  to  the  sprout- 
ing of  most  of  the  stumps,  the  effort  should  be  to  get  a 
fairly  general  distribution  of  seed  over  the  whole  area. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  a  mixed  stand  of  oak  and  hickory 
from  60  to  70  years  old,  the  period  of  greatest  vigor  of 


182          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

sprouting  has  already  been  passed,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  tell  which  trees  will  and  which  will  not  sprout. 
The  procedure,  under  these  circumstances,  is  to  make 
a  uniform  seed-cutting;  that  is,  the  stand  is  thinned 
throughout,  instead  of  only  in  patches.  The  principles 
governing  the  cutting  are  the  following: 

1.  The  thinning  removes  about  3S  per  cent,  of  the 
volume. 

2.  The  cutting  takes  the  suppressed  and  defective 
trees,  and  those  with  large  spreading  crowns,  especially 
any  overgrown   individuals   which   are   older  than   the 
main  crop. 

3.  In  choosing  between  two  trees,  the  least  vigorous 
is  cut,  for  the  other  will  bear  most  seed,  be  most  likely 
to  sprout  after  the  seed-cutting,  and  grow  most  rapidly 
before  the  final  cutting. 

4.  In  case  of  clumps  of  trees  which  have  originated 
from  sprouts,   only  defective  and   suppressed   trees   are 
taken.      The    dominant    thrifty   trees   in   a   clump   are 
treated  as  one  tree.     If,  on  account  of  defect,  one  or  more 
large,  dominant  trees  in  a  clump  must  be  cut,  the  entire 
clump  should  be  removed.     If  there  is  not  space  for  a 
healthy  development  of  sprouts  the  opening  should  be 
enlarged,  so  as  to  secure  straight  and  vigorous  sprouts. 

5.  All  scattered  individuals  of  undesired  species  are 
removed.     Such  sprouts  as  appear  will  be  checked  by 
the  shade  of  the  remaining  trees. 

6.  If  there  are  good  groups  of  advance  seedling  or 
sprout  reproduction,  trees  which  are  shading  them  should 


THE   COPPICE   SYSTEMS  183 

be  cut,  and  in  removing  the  trees,  the  groups  should  be 
carefully  protected. 

7.  If  for  any  reason  the  cutting  takes  healthy,  domi- 
nant trees  which  are  likely  to  sprout,  the  development  of 
the  sprouts  is  guaranteed  by  making  an  adequate  opening 
in  the  canopy — cutting  the  neighboring  trees  if  neces- 
sary. 

As  soon  as  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of  seedling 
reproduction  fully  to  supplement  the  sprout  reproduc- 
tion, the  remainder  of  the  stand  is  cut  clear. 

In  many  hardwood  forests  of  the  Northeast,  there  is 
a  mixture  of  chestnut  which  sprouts  vigorously  even 
when  the  trees  are  60  or  80  years  old.  Chestnut  grows 
very  rapidly,  and  usually  has  the  largest  yield  of  ties, 
poles,  and  lumber.  The  best  results  are  obtained,  in 
applying  the  pole-wood  system,  when  the  seed-cutting 
is  confined  chiefly  to  species  which  are  less  likely  to 
sprout,  like  oak  and  hickory.  It  often  happens  that  the 
chestnut  occurs  more  or  less  in  groups  of  from  5  to  10 
clumps  together,  though  individual  clumps  and  trees 
occur  scattered  among  the  other  species.  The  chestnut 
should  be  cut  as  little  as  possible  at  the  seed-cutting, 
on  the  same  principle  that  in  an  oak  stand  the  individuals 
most  likely  to  sprout  well  are  left  until  the  final  cutting. 

It  may  happen  that  an  owner  may  wish  to  cut  the 
chestnut,  or  a  part  of  it,  at  the  first  cutting.  In  that 
event,  whole  clumps  should  be  cut  and  not  individuals 
from  a  clump,  and  in  all  cases  openings  should  be  made 
large  enough  for  good  sprout  development. 


184          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  presence  of  young  chestnut  sprouts  here  and 
there  in  the  stand  will  necessitate  care  in  taking  out  the 
wood  at  the  second  cutting,  in  order  not  to  injure  them. 

The  average  well  stocked  stand  of  hardwoods  50 
years  old,  in  New  England,  yields  from  2 S  to  30  cords 
per  acre.  The  first  cutting  removes  from  6  to  12  cords. 

The  Second  Cutting. — The  final  cutting  may  be  made 
after  an  interval  of  from  5  to  10  years.  Usually,  the 
second  cutting  is  a  clearing.  This  is  the  best  plan,  for 
if  there  were  more  than  one  final  cutting,  there  would  be 
a  great  deal  of  damage  to  the  sprouts  in  felling  and 
removing  the  trees  left  standing.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  desirable  to  leave  scattered  reserves  to 
remain  during  a  second  rotation. 

In  making  the  seed-cutting  the  cost  of  cutting  and 
piling  the  wood  is  5  to  10  cents  per  cord  more  than  if 
the  stand  were  cleared.  The  cost  of  removing  the  wood 
is  also  increased  5  to  10  per  cent.  The  cost  of  marking 
is  about  3  cents  per  cord.  The  total  added  cost  of  the 
method,  including  the  burning  of  the  brush,  over  that 
of  the  old  method  of  general  clearing,  is  from  20  to  40 
cents  per  cord  for  the  wood  taken  out  at  the  first  or 
seed-cutting. 

Coppice  with  Standards 

The  principles  of  the  system  of  coppice  with  reserves 
described  on  page  177,  may  be  extended  still  further  in 
what  is  known  as  coppice  with  standards  (also  called 
stored,  or  storied,  coppice).  This  differs  from  the  sys- 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS 


185 


FIG.    39. — Coppice  with  Standards.      Germany. 


FIG.   40. — Another  Example  of  Coppice  with  Standards.      Germany. 


186          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

tern  described  on  page  177  in  two  particulars;  first, 
the  reserves  are  left  over  several  rotations  for  the  pro- 
duction of  very  large  trees,  and  second,  the  reserves  are 
chiefly  trees  from  the  seed,  and  not  sprouts. 

This  is  a  system  long  in  vogue  in  Europe,  and  now 
practised  there  very  extensively,  especially  on  private 
and  communal  forests.  As  yet  the  method  has  not  been 
used  systematically  in  this  country,  but  it  will  be  un- 
doubtedly as  soon  as  there  is  a  market  for  the  products 
of  coppice  cut  on  a  short  rotation.  The  description  given 
below  necessarily  applies  to  the  practise  in  Europe. 

This  system  is  most  simply  understood  by  following 
its  development  from  the  simple  coppice.  Suppose  that 
there  is  a  simple  coppice  managed  on  a  20-year  rota- 
tion, and  it  is  decided  to  develop  a  system  of  coppice 
with  standards  in  which  the  latter  will  have  a  rotation  of 
100  years. 

When  the  sprouts  are  cut,  a  certain  number  of  re- 
serves are  chosen  from  among  the  best  trees  in  the 
stand.  Seedling  trees  are  used  if  they  occur;  otherwise 
the  best  sprouts  are  used.  If  there  are  likely  to  be  no 
seedlings  in  the  reproduction,  some  are  established  by 
planting.  Twenty  years  later,  at  the  time  the  coppice  is 
again  cut,  new  reserves  are  chosen  among  the  best  trees, 
preferably  seedling  trees,  of  the  20-year-old  wood.  After 
cutting  there  will  then  be  standards  20  and  40  years  old. 
After  the  following  20  years,  the  oldest  standards  are  60 
years,  the  next  40  years  old;  and  then  some  20-year-old 
standards  are  chosen  as  before.  This  process  is  continued 


THE    COPPICE    SYSTEMS  187 

until  the  first  standards  reach  the  final  age  designed  for 
them;  in  this  case,  100  years.  There  will  then  be  on  the 
ground  standards  100,  80,  60,  and  40  years  old,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  20-year  stand  composed  of  sprouts  and  such 
seedlings  as  were  established  at  the  last  cutting.  The 
oldest  standards  are  then  cut,  and  new  seedlings  started 
in  their  place. 

There  is  no  rule  regarding  the  number  of  standards. 
Sometimes  in  European  practise  the  main  stress  is  laid 
on  the  coppice  production,  and  only  a  few  standards  are 
held  over  at  each  cutting.  In  this  case  the  production 
of  sprouts  would  be  but  little  interfered  with.  In  other 
cases  the  main  stress  is  on  the  overwood.  The  system 
then  approaches  the  selection  system,  combined  with  the 
production  of  a  coppice  crop.  The  form  and  condition 
of  a  compound  coppice  forest  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
number  of  standards  of  different  ages  per  acre.  Drawing 
from  a  European  stand  in  which  the  standards  are  oak, 
there  might  be  the  following  at  the  time  of  cutting: 

NUMBER  OF  STANDARDS 

100  years  old,  1 
80         "         2 

60  "  3 
40  "  12 
20  "  20 

In  this  table  it  is  seen  that  the  number  of  standards  is 
progressively  smaller  with  increase  of  age.  Theoreti- 
cally, it  is  designed  to  have  all  classes  of  standards  occupy 
equal  areas.  Enough  standards  are  held  over  in  the  be- 


188          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

ginning  to  allow  for  loss  through  accident  and  for  thin- 
nings. 

When  a  cutting  is  made,  the  spaces  formerly  occupied 
by  the  old  standards  are  filled  with  seedlings  by  planting. 
The  younger  standards  are  inspected  carefully,  and  thin- 
nings are  made  when  desirable,  so  as  to  benefit  the  best 
standards  and  to  maintain  the  area  occupied  by  each  age- 
class  at  about  the  normal. 

The  species  used  as  standards  are  those  which  have  a 
relatively  light  foliage,  such  as  oak  and  ash.  The  under- 
wood is  best  composed  of  comparatively  tolerant  species, 
such  as  (in  Europe)  alder,  hornbeam,  beech,  elm,  and 
maple. 

The  standards  are  crowded  from  the  side  only  during 
the  life  of  the  sprouts,  and  consequently  have  only  a 
comparatively  short  stem  cleared  of  branches.  Since 
they  stand  isolated  for  most  of  their  life,  they  develop 
broad,  spreading  crowns.  The  diameter  growth  is  at  a 
maximum,  and  they  produce  one  or  two  very  large  logs. 


CHAPTER   VI 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   FOREST 

Improvement  Cuttings 

UNDER  this  head  are  comprised  those  cuttings  which 
are  made  in  immature  stands  to  improve  their  character 
and  growth.  Their  specific  objects  are: 

1.  To  improve  the  composition  of  the  stand. 

2.  To  improve  the  form  of  the  trees. 

3.  To  increase  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  trees. 

4.  To    increase   the    yield  and   value   of    the   final 
product. 

Improvement  cuttings  are  thinnings  designed  to  give 
to  the  best  trees  the  amount  of  light  and  growing  space 
most  favorable  for  their  best  development.  Their  pur- 
pose is  entirely  to  benefit  the  existing  stand.  As  far  as 
possible,  the  openings  are  made  small,  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  in  a  few  years  the  crowns  of  the  surrounding 
trees  will  close  together.  They  thus  differ  from  repro- 
duction cuttings,  in  which  permanent  openings  in  the 
canopy  are  made  with  the  Intention  of  establishing  re- 
production. 

189 


190          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

Improvement  cuttings  may  be  classed  in  the  ft>llow- 
ing  groups: 

1.  Cleanings. 

2.  Liberation  cuttings. 

3.  Thinnings. 

4.  Damage  cuttings. 

Cleanings 

This  term  is  applied  to  cuttings  in  young,  even-aged 
stands  which  remove  the  undesirable  trees  likely  to 
overtop  and  injure  those  of  greater  promise.  In  nearly 
every  young  stand  there  are  a  certain  number  of  indi- 
viduals of  poor  species  or  of  poor  form  which  grow  taller 
than  the  surrounding  trees;  and  if  these  are  allowed 
to  stand,  they  will  interfere  with  or  actually  kill  trees  of 
prospective  value.  These  undesirable  trees  are  removed 
by  the  cleanings  while  the  stand  is  still  very  young,  and 
before  they  have  done  any  appreciable  damage.  The 
small  openings  made  by  their  removal  are  quickly  closed 
together. 

The  material  which  most  commonly  requires  atten- 
tion is  advance  growth  of  poor  species  or  of  poor  form. 
A  tree  from  5  to  10  years  older  than  the  main  stand 
may  develop  an  open-grown  form,  overtop  and  injure 
the  surrounding  trees  of  good  form,  occupy  a  proportion- 
ately large  space  where  a  number  of  much  better  trees 
might  be  growing,  and  itself  produce  knotty,  inferior 
wood.  Often  this  advance  growth  is  composed  of  infe- 
rior species.  If,  however,  a  stand  is  poorly  stocked,  and 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST  191 

an  advance  tree  is  more  or  less  isolated,  it  really  consti- 
tutes an  integral  part  of  the  crop,  and  is  allowed  to  stand. 

In  reproducing  a  forest  naturally,  the  species  most 
desired  often  dk>  not  establish  themselves  as  quickly  as  the 
poorer  kinds,  or,  during  early  youth,  the  inferior  species 
may  be  the  more  rapid  growing.  If  the  stand  is  left 
untouched,  a  large  number  of  the  most  promising  trees 
may  thus  be  killed  or  crippled,  and  the  value  of  the  crop 
may  be  much  reduced.  A  good  illustration  of  this 
condition  is  found  in  New  England.  After  a  pine  stand 
is  cut,  the  first  species  to  spring  up  are  hardwoods. 
Later  on,  young  pines  creep  in  abundantly  under  the 
hardwoods,  but  many  of  the  pines  are  killed  in  the  com- 
petition. A  cleaning  would  release  the  best  pines,  and 
thus  maintain  the  species  in  the  next  crop. 

The  application  of  this  method  may  be  seen  also  in 
the  mountains  of  Europe,  where  beech  and  spruce  in 
mixture  are  reproduced  naturally.  The  two  species  come 
up  together  in  the  reproduction,  but  the  beech  grows 
the  more  rapidly,  overtopping  and  injuring  the  spruce. 
The  latter  is  maintained  in  proper  proportion  only  by 
cleanings  in  which  those  beeches  which  are  likely  to  in- 
jure the  spruce  are  cut  back. 

In  hardwood  regions  one  of  the  problems  is  to  pro- 
tect young  seedling  trees  from  sprouts.  The  latter  grow 
very  rapidly  during  early  youth,  and  in  some  cases  over- 
top seedling  trees  which  are  of  special  value.  This  is 
illustrated  where  pine  is  planted  after  the  clear-cutting  of 
hardwoods.  There  are  inevitably  a  certain  number  of 


192  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


HI'S 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST  193 

fast-growing  sprouts  which  overtop  and  injure  the  pine 
trees.  Unless  the  stand  is  cleaned  in  early  life,  there 
may  be  a  very  large  percentage  of  loss  to  the  pine.  The 
author  is  familiar  with  oite  plantation  of  pine  which  was 
practically  destroyed  in  this  way. 

There  is  often  a  considerable  growth  of  brush  which 
competes  with  valuable  young  trees.  Thus,  in  Penn- 
sylvania such  shrubs  as  scrub  oak,  sweet-fern,  blueberry, 
etc.,  injure  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  young  tree 
growth.  This  damage  can  practically  be  eliminated  by 
cleanings. 

Cleanings  are  made  in  young  stands  as  soon  as  the 
overtopping  trees  begin  to  be  injurious.  The  first  cut- 
ting is  usually  made  within  the  first  10  years  after  the 
establishment  of  reproduction.  The  best  plan  is  to  make 
a  cleaning  within  the  first  five  years,  and  then  go  over  the 
ground  a  second  time  within  the  next  five  years. 

The  trees  are  either  cut  down  at  the  base  or  they  are 
lopped.  Sometimes  the  lopping  of  a  single  branch  is 
sufficient  to  release  a  crowded  tree  permanently.  It  may 
occasionally  be  the  best  plan  to  lop  off  the  head  of  a  tree, 
leaving  a  high  stub.  This  is  done  when  there  would  be 
danger  of  rapid  sprouting  from  low  stumps  and  the  over- 
topping of  the  released  trees. 

In  making  cleanings,  the  forester  must  make  it  a  point 
to  remove  only  that  which  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
accomplishing  the  purpose  of  the  operation,  and  in  this 
way  to  hold  down  the  expense  of  cutting.  There  is  a 
temptation  to  cut  more  than  is  necessary,  and  hence  to 


194  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

increase  the  cost  beyond  what  is  warrantable.  The  work 
does  not  require  much  skill,  and  can  be  conducted  by  an 
intelligent  foreman  after  some  instruction.  The  part 
requiring  the  greatest  exercise  of  judgment  is  the  deci- 
sion as  to  how  much  should  be  cut  in  a  given  case. 

In  making  cleanings  one  ordinarily  uses  a  bill-hook 
or  a  heavy  hunting  knife.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory 
tools  is  a  plain  straight  Rogers  steel  hunting  knife  of 
the  largest  size,  with  a  10-inch  blade  and  weighing 
about  2  pounds. 

The  cleaning  is  a  cultural  operation,  and  usually  yields 
no  immediate  money  return.  The  cost  necessarily  varies 
under  different  conditions.  It  is  commonly  between  25 
cents  and  $2  per  acre,  and  averages  about  50  cents.  An 
outlay  in  cleanings  may  be  distinctly  profitable  in  the 
long  run.  An  expenditure  of  50  cents  per  acre  may  pre- 
vent the  injury  of  30  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  valuable  trees 
in  the  stand. 

Liberation  Cuttings 

It  frequently  happens  that  in  immature  stands  there 
are  scattered  trees  much  older  than  the  main  crop  which, 
by  their  wide-spreading  crowns,  overtop  and  retard  the 
development  of  the  younger  trees.  The  removal  of 
these  trees  may  be  called  a  liberation  cutting.  This 
operation  should  not  be  confused  with  a  cleaning  in 
which  the  trees  removed  comprise  advance  growth  only 
a  few  years  older  than  the  average.  In  the  liberation 
cuttings  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  age  of  the 
trees  to  be  cut  and  of  those  in  the  main  stand. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    FOREST  195 

There  are  two  problems  of  liberation  cuttings:  first, 
in  young  stands  where  the  crowns  of  the  old  trees  are 
well  above  the  young  trees ;  ^nd  second,  where  the 
crowns  of  the  young  trees  have  reached  the  crowns  of 
the  scattered  older  trees. 

The  first  problem  is  exactly  analogous  to  the  removal 
and  final  cuttings  in  the  shelterwood  system  of  natural 
reproduction.  There  has  not  yet  been  any  material  in- 
jury to  the  young  growth,  and  the  overtopping  trees  may 
have  been  a  benefit  from  the  standpoint  of  shelter.  In 
removing  the  overtopping  trees  care  is  taken  to  do  as 
little  damage  as  possible  to  the  young  trees.  If  the 
young  stand  has  a  good  density,  the  openings  will  be 
rapidly  filled  by  the  meeting  of  the  crowns.  If  the 
opening  is  too  large  for  this,  it  is  often  possible  to  plant 
some  young  trees,  which  will  then  grow  up  with  and 
form  a  part  of  the  main  stand,  even  though  a  few  years 
younger. 

In  the  second  problem  the  stand  is  older  than  in  the 
case  just  described,  and  the  scattered  old  trees  have  al- 
ready retarded  the  development  of  the  trees  immediately 
under  and  near  their  crowns.  This  is  the  situation  very 
frequently  encountered  in  second-growth  forests.  Usu- 
ally these  trees  are  large,  with  short  boles  and  broad, 
spreading  crowns.  They  will  not  increase  appreciably 
in  value,  and  their  continued  presence  in  the  stand 
means  further  injury  to  the  trees  near  them.  They  are, 
therefore,  cut  for  the  benefit  of  the  stand.  It  often  hap- 
pens, however,  that  the  opening  made  by  cutting  one  of 


196  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

these  trees  is  too  large  to  be  rilled  by  the  closing  of  the 
crowns.  In  other  words,  a  permanent  opening  is  made, 
in  which  reproduction  of  trees,  brush,  or  weeds  will 
take  place.  Such  reproduction  as  comes  in  will  probably 
not  be  thrifty,  because  the  opening  is  too  small  to  permit 
normal  development  of  the  new  growth.  But  even  if  it 
is  not  possible  to  secure  in  these  openings  reproduction 
that  will  thrive,  the  stragglers  should  be  cut  for  the  bene- 
fit of  those  trees  which  surround  the  opening. 

Sometimes  the  scattered  older  trees  are  well  formed, 
middle-aged,  thrifty  trees.  These  are  not  cut,  but  rather 
are  treated  as  reserves,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  the  pro- 
duction of  large  timber. 

Usually  the  trees  cut  are  large  enough  for  the  market. 
The  operation  yields  a  good  return.  The  liberation  cut- 
ting is  frequently  made  at  the  same  time  as  a  thinning. 
The  large  size  of  the  trees  may  sometimes  increase  the 
general  grade  of  the  product,  and  thus  make  possible 
a  thinning  where  this  would  by  itself  bring  so  small  a 
return  that  the  owner  would  be  unwilling  to  make  it. 

Thinnings 

This  term  is  applied  to  cuttings  made  in  immature 
stands  with  the  object  of  reducing  the  density  of  canopy, 
and  of  giving  to  the  most  vigorous  trees  that  space  and 
light  needed  to  secure  most  quickly  the  product  desired 
in  the  management. 

The  word  thinning  is  an  unfortunate  term,  because 
any  cutting  other  than  a  clearing  is  in  a  sense  a  thinning. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST 


197 


198          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  term  has,  however,  come  to  have  a  restricted  techni- 
cal meaning,  both  in  British  and  American  practise,  and 
for  that  reason  the  author  has  chosen  to  retain  it  rather 
than  to  undertake  the  establishment  of  a  new  and  unfa- 
miliar expression. 

Thinnings  are  made  chiefly  in  even-aged  stands. 
When  used  in  even-aged  groups  in  irregular  stands, 
the  principles  are  the  same  as  where  the  whole  stand 
is  even-aged.  Therefore  the  discussion  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  will  be  confined  chiefly  to  the  application  of 
thinnings  in  stands  which  are  even-aged  or  approxi- 
mately so. 

Need  of  Thinnings. — For  the  purposes  of  forestry  it 
is  desirable  for  trees  to  grow  in  crowded  stands.  The 
mutual  crowding  results  in  the  natural  pruning  of  the 
stems  and  the  production  of  high-grade  lumber.  In 
planting  forests  the  trees  are  set  from  4  to  6  feet  apart,  or 
from  1,200  to  2,800  trees  per  acre,  and  successful  natural 
reproduction  often  results  in  an  even  greater  density  of 
stocking.  As  soon  as  the  crowns  of  the  trees  meet,  and 
their  growth  is  consequently  restricted,  the  struggle  for 
light,  space,  moisture,  and  nourishment  begins.  One 
of  the  first  manifestations  of  this  competition  between 
the  trees  is  their  difference  in  crown  development. 
Some  trees  forge  ahead  and  take  their  place  as  leaders, 
with  strong,  dominant  crowns;  others  fall  behind,  with 
crowded  crowns,  and  take  an  intermediate  place,  while 
the  weak  trees  are  suppressed  and  overtopped.  As  the 
stand  grows  older  and  the  trees  must  have  more  space 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE   FOREST  199 

for  growth,  the  differences  between  the  development  of 
the  individual  trees  are  intensified.  It  is  always  the 
leaders  which  are  best  able  to  spread  their  crowns,  so 
that  many  trees  that  are  only  partially  crowded  at  first  are 
later  on  suppressed,  and  those  at  first  suppressed  are  at 
last  actually  killed.  There  is,  therefore,  a  rapid  reduc- 
tion of  the  numbers  of  trees  by  the  natural  struggle  for 
existence. 

The  development  of  a  stand  in  this  manner  is  at- 
tended with  both  advantages  and  disadvantages.  The 
chief  advantage  is  that  the  crowding  results  in  the  death 
of  the  lower  branches  and  the  production  of  clear  stems. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  restriction  of  the  crowns,  in  both 
length  and  width,  results  in  a  reduction  of  the  diameter 
and  volume  growth  of  the  individuals.  \Vhile  the  trees 
are  young,  the  retarding  of  growth  is  relatively  small, 
because  only  a  small  crown  is  required  for  growth  and 
the  natural  vigor  of  the  trees  is  at  a  maximum.  Later 
on,  there  is  a  progressively  greater  relative  difference 
between  the  actual  and  possible  growth  through  the 
reduction  of  the  crown.  In  some  cases  the  crowns  are  so 
reduced  that  they  do  not  occupy  more  than  1 5  per  cent, 
of  the  total  length  of  the  stem.  Such  a  tree  is  lanky,  and 
exposed  to  damage  by  the  wind;  it  is  incapable  of  good 
seed  production;  it  is  weak  and  subject  to  insect  attacks 
and  to  damage  by  excessive  droughts;  and  its  product, 
though  of  high  quality,  is  quantitatively  much  less  than 
it  might  be.  The  crowding  of  a  stand  is,  therefore, 
beneficial  in  youth,  as  it  contributes  to  the  production 


200          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

of  clear-boled  trees;  but  excessive  crowding  in  later  life 
results  in  a  great  reduction  of  growth. 

In  a  crowded  stand  left  untouched,  the  struggle  for 
space  sometimes  results  in  injury  to  the  form  of  good 
trees.  Most  trees  tend  to  grow  straight,  and  the  crook 
or  sweep  in  a  stem  is  often  due  to  its  bending  and  reach- 
ing for  light,  through  being  crowded  on  one  side  by 
another  tree.  This  is  particularly  true  in  coppice  stands, 
where  a  clump  of  sprouts  all  start  straight,  but  through 
mutual  crowding  may  all  develop  crooked  stems. 

Then,  again,  poor  species  will  often  take  a  dominant 
place  and  crowd  those  of  more  value. 

Results  of  Thinnings. — The  practical  results  of  thin- 
nings are  as  follows: 

1.  Rapid  growth  of  individual  trees.     It  is  possible 
to  bring  a  stand  to  merchantable   condition    10   or   20 
years  sooner  than  without  thinnings. 

2.  Increased  total  yield.     In  Europe,  about  30  per 
cent,  of  the  total  aggregate  yield  of  a  stand  during  the 
rotation  is  from  thinnings.     This  amount  is  really  a  sur- 
plus, because  the  final  yield  is  not  less,  and  is  sometimes 
even  more,  than  if  there  had  been  no  thinnings. 

3.  Improved  quality  of  product.     The  forester  has 
the  opportunity  to  develop  trees  of  specially  high  quality, 
clear  stems,  and  even  grain.     By  timely  thinnings  he  can 
prevent   the   distortion   of   valuable   trees   through  side 
crowding,  and  thus  reduce  the  percentage  of  crook. 

4.  If  there  is  a  cordwood  market,  decadent  and  de- 
fective material  can  be  utilized. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST  201 

5.  By  the  prompt  removal  of  diseased  and  insect- 
infested  trees  further  injury  from  these  sources  can  be 
prevented. 

6.  The  amount  of  inflammable  debris  on  the  ground 
is  less  than  where  there  are  no  thinnings. 

7.  The  trees  are  more  windfirm. 

Theory  of  Thinnings. — The  objective  point  is  the 
development  of  the  dominant  trees  of  good  form.  The 
aim  is  to  give  them  the  space  required  for  their  proper 
growth,  with  a  view  to  a  larger  yield  per  acre,  and  the 
maintenance  of  a  degree  of  density  of  cover  which  will 
maintain  the  soil  in  good  condition. 

In  making  thinnings,  therefore,  the  forester  studies 
the  crowns  of  the  trees  and  their  position  in  the  canopy. 
He  does  not  consider  the  number  of  trees  per  acre,  or 
the  spacing  between  the  trunks;  his  principal  attention  is 
directed  to  the  requirements  for  crown  space  of  the  trees 
he  seeks  to  develop.  In  order  clearly  to  understand  the 
principles  of  thinnings,  the  reader  should  keep  in  mind 
the  distinctions  between  the  different  crown-classes,  as 
outlined  on  page  28,  and  illustrated  in  the  diagram  on 
page  29. 

The  methods  of  thinning  most  common  in  Europe 
are  those  developed  in  Germany  and  to-day  most  exten- 
sively practised  in  that  country.  The  theory  is  to  re- 
move, first,  the  suppressed  stand,  and  then  such  of  the 
intermediate  and  co-dominant  trees  as  are  required  by 
the  local  conditions  and  objects  of  management  Dom- 
inant trees  are  not  cut,  except  in  the  case  of  indi- 


202          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

viduals  which  are  defective,  injured,  dying,  or  dead,  or 
have  exceptionally  poor  form. 

The  characteristic  of  the  method  is  that  the  trees  pri- 
marily chosen  for  cutting  are  in  the  subordinate  part  of 
the  stand;  and  then  such  others  are  taken  as  are  required 
by  the  special  objects  of  management.  Normally,  the 
suppressed  trees  are  not  left  standing  at  all,  unless  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  one  of  the  larger  trees  because  of 
some  defect,  and  in  that  case  subordinate  trees  are  left  as 
a  ground  cover. 

The  selection  of  the  trees  for  cutting  depends  on  how 
severe  a  thinning  is  required.  For  convenience  in  sys- 
tematizing the  Work,  thinnings  are  classified  into  the  fol- 
lowing grades,  based  on  the  severity  of  the  cutting: 

Grade  A.    Light,  removing  the  dead  and  dying  trees. 

Grade  B.  Moderate,  removing  all  suppressed  and, 
in  addition,  the  lower  of  the  intermediate  trees. 

Grade  C.  Heavy,  removing,  in  addition,  the  re- 
maining intermediate  trees. 

Grade  D.  Very  Heavy,  removing,  in  addition,  many 
of  the  co-dominant  trees. 

A  heavier  cutting  than  Grade  D  is  called  an  accretion 
cutting.  (See  page  216.) 

Principles  Governing  the  Severity  of  Thinnings.— 
The  grade  of  thinnings  to  be  used  in  any  given  case  de- 
pends on  a  variety  of  circumstances,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important: 

1.  Purpose  of  management. 

2.  Condition  of  the  stand. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST  203 

3.  Tolerance  of  the  species. 

4.  Danger  from  windfall. 

5.  Site. 

PURPOSE  OF  MANAGEMENT. — The  character  of  the 
product  depends  on  the  density  of  the  stand.  If  the  aim 
is  to  secure  rapid  growth  in  diameter,  the  stand  must  be 
opened  sufficiently  to  permit  the  development  of  a  full 
crown.  The  long,  full  crown  means,  however,  a  shorter, 
clear-length  and  coarser  logs  from  the  upper  stem.  The 
largest  trees  and  the  greatest  yield  in  log  measure  are  ob- 
tained by  the  heavier  grades  of  thinnings.  On  the  other 
hand,  for  the  production  of  trees  of  high  quality  mod- 
erate thinnings  are  made.  In  general,  the  best  results  are 
obtained  by  making  the  thinnings  during  the  first  half  of 
a  stand's  life  moderate,  in  order  to  secure  good  form  of 
trees,  and  then,  after  the  main  height  growth  is  reached, 
thinning  heavily,  in  order  to  secure  rapid  growth  in  diam- 
eter and  volume. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  STAND. — The  considerations  in  the 
previous  pages  are  necessarily  subject  to  modification,  if 
a  stand  is  not  regular  or  does  not  have  a  uniform  density. 
In  many  stands — in  this  country,  most  of  them — there 
are  undesirable  individuals  in  all  crown  classes.  There 
are  dominant  trees  of  poor  species,  trees  of  poor  form, 
defective  trees,  etc.,  which  are  cut  whenever  their  removal 
will  benefit  the  stand.  In  a  thinning  designed  to  be  of 
the  B  grade,  there  might  be  taken  out  co-dominant  or 
even  dominant  trees,  of  undesirable  character.  So,  also, 
in  a  thinning  designed  to  be  of  the  D  grade,  there 


204          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF  'HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

might  be  such  a  small  density  that  intermediate  or  even 
suppressed  trees  should  be  left  to  fill  gaps. 

TOLERANCE  OF  SPECIES. — Tolerant  species  suffer  from 
overcrowding  less  than  intolerant  species.  To  maintain 
a  full  crown  and  rapid  growth,  the  latter  must  be  thinned 
the  more  heavily.  Conversely,  to  secure  wood  of  high 
quality,  the  stand  must  be  kept  denser  with  the  tolerant 
species. 

DANGER  FROM  WINDFALL. — If  there  is  danger  from 
windfall,  the  stand  is  thinned  early  and  heavily  in  order 
that  there  may  be  developed  trees  with  strong  roots.  If 
an  older  stand  is  dense,  and  there  is  danger  from  wind- 
fall, the  thinnings  must  be  very  moderate. 

SITE. — On  good  soil  the  trees  are  vigorous  and  the 
differentiation  into  crown-classes  is  more  rapid  and 
sharply  defined  than  on  poor  soils.  The  trees  respond 
quickly  and  energetically  to  thinnings,  and  fill  very  rap- 
idly any  gaps  that  have  been  made.  Heavy  thinnings 
may  be  made  on  good  soils  without  danger  of  exposing 
the  soil  to  drying  influences.  The  poorer  the  soil, 
usually  the  greater  is  the  need  of  thinnings  to  secure 
good  growth,  but  the  greater  is  also  the  danger  of  ex- 
posing the  soil. 

Time  of  First  Thinning. — The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained if  thinnings  are  begun  early  in  the  life  of  the 
stand.  It  would  be  a  benefit  if  light  thinnings  were  made 
as  soon  as  the  active  crowding  and  sharp  separation  into 
crown-classes  begin.  This  would  ordinarily  be  when 
the  trees  are  between  10  and  20  years  old.  In  some 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST 


205 


FIG.  44.— A  Stand  of  White  Pine  after  a  Thinning.      New  Han 


206          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

instances  in  Germany,  Scotch  pine  stands  are  thinned 
as  early  as  at  12  years.  Unless,  however,  there  is  a  mar- 
ket for  very  small  sapling  wood  for  fuel,  a  very  early 
thinning  would  bring  no  return  whatever.  The  general 
rule  is  that  thinnings  should  begin  as  soon  as  returns 
from  the  sale  of  the  material  covers  the  cost  of  the 
operation. 

In  most  cases  it  will  not  pay  to  make  thinnings  in- 
volving an  actual  outlay.  There  are  millions  of  acres  of 
second-growth,  even-aged  timber  in  this  country  which 
need  thinning,  and  need  it  badly,  but  are  so  situated  with 
reference  to  the  market  that  the  product  of  the  thinnings 
could  not  be  disposed  of  at  all.  In  the  better  popu- 
lated districts,  where  there  is  a  market  for  fuel,  thin- 
nings may  often  be  made  without  loss,  even  at  an  early 
period  in  the  stand's  life. 

Often  a  farmer  is  able  to  spend  some  of  his  own  time 
or  that  of  his  regular  employees  in  such  work,  without 
sacrifice  to  other  work,  and  hence  without  a  real  loss. 
An  owner  may  have  in  charge  of  his  property  a  forest 
ranger  who  can  devote  part  of  his  time  to  thinnings  with- 
out interfering  with  his  main  work.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances it  certainly  pays  to  make  early  thinnings,  even 
before  the  product  is  salable.  Therefore  a  rule  based  on 
market  conditions  does  not  answer  the  question  as  to 
when  thinnings  should  be  begun. 

In  some  instances  when  the  prospective  value  of  the 
timber  is  large,  it  will  pay  to  make  thinnings,  even  if  this 
entails  an  actual  outlay  of  money.  When  such  thinnings 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST  207 

would  mean  the  protection  of  the  valuable  trees  against 
the  crowding  of  less  valuable  ones,  and  the  stimulation  of 
growth  in  a  stand  which  is  stagnating  from  overcrowd- 
ing, an  investment  in  thinnings  is  warranted. 

The  owner  of  a  forest  is  interested  in  knowing 
whether  there  is  not  a  critical  period  before  which  thin- 
nings should  be  made  if  they  are  to  be  of  any  real  benefit. 
There  is  such  a  critical  period,  which  differs  with  differ- 
ent species  and  with  different  conditions,  and  which 
depends  also  on  the  object  of  management.  The  forest 
should  be  thinned  before  the  crowns  of  the  dominant 
trees  are  so  far  reduced  that  the  trees  cannot  respond 
to  the  improved  conditions  and  accomplish  the  objects  of 
management.  If,  for  example,  the  purpose  is  to  produce 
a  maximum  of  large  trees  and  a  large  volume  of  timber 
measured  in  board  feet,  the  thinnings  must  be  begun 
while  the  crown  is  relatively  long.  If  the  crown  is  per- 
mitted to  become  very  small  and  short,  occupying  only 
10  or  15  per  cent,  of  the  stem,  the  trees  are  not  capable 
of  much  benefit  from  thinnings.  In  managing  white 
pine  for  the  production  of  box  boards,  the  aim  should  be 
to  begin  the  thinnings  before  the  crowns  of  the  dominant 
trees  are  on  an  average  reduced  below  40  per  cent,  of  the 
total  height  of  the  trees.  If  for  convenience  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  crown  length  and  that  of  the  full  stem  is  called 
the  crown-ratio,  the  critical  period  in  white  pine  managed 
for  box  boards  is  when  further  postponement  of  thinnings 
would  be  likely  to  reduce  the  crown-ratio  to  less  than  40 
per  cent. 


208          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  critical  period  would  be  later  if  the  aim  of  man- 
agement were  the  production  of  wood  of  high  quality. 
In  that  case  it  might  depend  on  a  crown-ratio  of  20  to 
30  per  cent.,  according  to  the  species  and  site  conditions. 

The  experience  in  thinnings  in  American  species  is 
so  limited,  and  the  markets  are  so  poor  for  the  products 
obtained  from  them,  that  no  data  can  be  given  as  to  the 
time  of  beginning  the  work  of  thinnings  with  the  various 
forest  types. 

Repetition  of  Thinnings. — Thinnings  make  small, 
temporary  openings  in  the  canopy  which  grow  together 
in  a  few  years.  Theoretically,  the  thinning  is  repeated 
as  soon  as  the  crowns  close  over  these  openings.  The 
interval  between  thinnings  would  depend,  then,  on  the 
severity  of  the  cutting  and  size  of  the  openings.  The  old 
rule  in  Germany  was  to  thin  early,  moderately,  and  often. 
Frequently  in  Europe  thinnings  are  made  at  intervals 
of  from  3  to  5  years.  That  is,  of  course,  a  very  in- 
tensive application  of  thinnings.  More  often  from  5 
to  10  years  represents  the  interval  between  thinnings. 
The  interval  is  shorter  in  youth  and  middle  life,  when 
the  growth  of  the  crowns  is  rapid,  than  later,  when  it 
takes  longer  for  the  crowns  to  meet. 

Application  in  Europe. — The  principles  outlined  in 
the  preceding  pages  may  be  illustrated  by  the  policy  of 
thinnings  recommended  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Mayr,  of  Mu- 
nich, Germany,  and  by  Dr.  Flury,  of  Zurich,  Switzerland. 
Dr.  Mayr's  program  for  the  treatment  of  the  average 
even-aged  stand  in  Germany  is  as  follows: 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST  209 

The  cleanings  are  begun  before  the  canopy  is  closed. 
From  that  point  until  it  is  from  30  to  40  years  old,  the 
stand  is  kept  as  dense  as  possible.  During  this  period 
the  death  of  the  lower  branches  takes  place  over  a  satisfac- 
tory proportion  of  the  stem.  Then  regular  thinnings 
begin.  The  first  thinning  removes  the  dead  and  the 
suppressed  trees.  About  5  years  later  a  second  thinning 
removes  suppressed  trees,  and  also  cuts  into  the  lower 
intermediate  class.  Some  5  five  years  later  a  third  thin- 
ning is  made,  comprising,  in  addition  to  the  above,  many 
of  the  intermediate  and  some  of  the  co-dominant  trees. 
This  brings  the  stand  up  to  about  the  50th  year.  The 
main  object  up  to  this  point  has  been  the  development 
of  form  and  quality.  After  this  period  the  stand  is 
thinned  much  more  heavily  for  the  production  of  vol- 
ume. The  design  is  then  to  give  the  crowns  the  advan- 
tage of  full  light.  These  cuttings  occur  every  5  years 
till  the  stand  is  about  80  years  old.  During  this  period 
the  distance  between  the  crowns  is  kept  at  about  a  meter. 
After  the  80th  year  the  cuttings  are  made  every  10  years, 
and  the  crown  distance  is  increased  to  about  2  meters. 
Dr.  Mayr  classifies  these  last  cuttings — from  50  years 
on — as  accretion  cuttings,  and  assigns  the  term  "thin- 
nings" to  those  from  the  cleanings  to  the  50th  year. 
The  planting  of  an  under-story,  preferably  of  beech,  as  a 
ground  cover  during  the  period  of  accretion  cuttings  is 
recommended. 

Dr.  Mayr  estimates  that  ordinarily  there  would  be 
approximately  400  trees  per  hectar,  or  160  per  acre,  at 


210  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  end  of  the  rotation.  He  estimates  that  the  aggre- 
gate yield  of  the  thinnings  and  the  accretion  cuttings 
will  be  about  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  final  cuttings, 
and  that  the  latter  will  be  fully  equal  to  the  final  cut- 
tings under  other  methods  of  treatment. 

This  program  is  somewhat  more  drastic  than  that 
recommended  by  some  other  European  foresters.  It  may 
be  compared  with  that  of  Dr.  Flury,  whose  proposals  are 
the  result  of  a  series  of  experiments  in  stands  subjected 
to  different  grades  of  thinning. 

Dr.  Flury's  conclusions  for  the  management  of  spruce 
are  that  the  thinnings  should  begin  early  and  be  con- 
ducted regularly.  During  youth  and  up  to  about  middle 
age — 50  to  60  years — they  should  be  between  grade  B 
and  C,  approaching  C.  After  middle  age  they  are  in- 
creased to  a  full  C  grade.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last 
third  of  the  rotation,  the  stand  is  in  a  condition  to 
require  no  more  real  thinnings.  From  that  time  further 
openings  would  be  of  the  character  of  accretion  cuttings. 
He  recommends  an  early  beginning  of  reproduction 
cuttings  under  the  shelterwood  system  and  a  long  pe- 
riod during  which  the  trees  would  grow  rapidly  in  an 
isolated  position,  with  the  ground  protected  by  the  young 
crop.  This  plan  differs  from  that  of  Dr.  Mayr  chiefly 
in  extending  the  period  of  real  thinnings,  and  thus 
holding  the  stand  dense  for  a  longer  time. 

The  French  Method. — Somewhat  in  contrast  to  the 
principles  just  described,  is  a  method  of  thinnings  used 
very  extensively  in  France, 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    FOREST  211 

The  objective  point  in  this  method  is  to  assist  trie 
growth  and  development  of  a  certain  number  of  the  best 
individuals  in  the  stand.  The  trees  chosen  are  those 
most  suited  to  form  the  final  dominant  stand,  and  the 
number  is  fully  equal  to  what  may  stand  on  the  area  at 
maturity.  These  trees  are  given  the  right  amount  of 
light  and  space  required  for  them  to  produce  the  class  of 
timber  desired.  This  is  done  by  removing  the  upper 
intermediate,  co-dominant,  and,  sometimes,  even  the 
dominant  trees  that  are  crowding  them.  The  subordi- 
nate stand  is  not  cut,  except  to  remove  dead  and  dying 
trees.  Most  of  the  lower  intermediate  and  suppressed 
living  trees  are  retained.  Their  removal  would  have 
practically  no  effect  in  helping  the  growth  of  the  selected 
leaders,  and  they  act  as  a  soil  cover,  thus  permitting 
greater  freedom  in  cutting  in  the  upper  classes  without 
fear  of  exposing  the  soil.  The  presence  of  the  subordi- 
nate trees  results  in  excellent  natural  pruning  of  the 
trees  in  the  main  stand,  particularly  by  hastening  the 
decay  and  fall  of  the  dead  branches. 

Comparing  this  method  with  that  used  in  Germany, 
it  is  in  substance  a  thinning  in  the  main  stand  of  the 
grade  D,  and  a  thinning  in  the  subordinate  stand  of  the 
grade  A.  From  the  standpoint  of  practical  operation, 
the  method  has  the  advantage  that  the  trees  cut  are  almost 
all  in  the  upper  classes;  their  average  size  is  larger  than 
in  the  other  method,  and  hence  the  returns  are  greater. 
This  would  sometimes  warrant  a  thinning  when  market 
conditions  are  too  poor  for  the  German  method.  On  the 


212          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

other  hand,  the  presence  of  a  great  number  of  small  trees 
increases  the  difficulty  of  felling  the  trees  and  making  up 
the  wood,  and  offers  a  distinct  hindrance  to  removing 
the  logs  and  wood. 

Practical  Application  of  Thinnings  in  this  Country. 
— The  principles  outlined  in  the  preceding  pages  serve 
as  a  guide  for  practise.  In  actual  application  they  are 
necessarily  subject  to  considerable  variation.  The  exact 
measures  to  be  used  and  the  details  of  selecting  the  trees 
must  in  every  case  depend  on  the  requirements  of  the 
given  stand.  The  forester  must  diagnose  the  stand  and 
make  the  cuttings  according  to  its  peculiar  needs. 
Knowing  the  specific  life  characteristics  and  requirements 
of  the  species  and  their  capabilities  under  the  given  site 
conditions,  he  makes  his  thinning  so  as  to  accomplish  in 
the  highest  measure  the  objects  of  management. 

As  regards  the  time  at  which  to  begin  the  real  thin- 
nings Dr.  Mayr  specifies  from  the  30th  to  the  40th 
years  in  the  life  of  the  stand.  The  statement  means, 
however,  that  this  is  an  average  for  a  stand  well  estab- 
lished, in  which  the  necessary  work  of  cleaning  in  early 
youth  has  already  been  made.  It  means  also  that  this  is 
the  period  when  thinnings  ought  ordinarily  to  begin.  It 
often  happens  even  in  Europe  that  it  will  not  pay  to  make 
thinnings  even  at  30  or  40  years  of  age,  on  account  of 
poor  market  and  logging  conditions. 

There  are  many  instances  of  young  mixed  stands 
in  which  valuable  species  are  being  badly  crowded  and 
injured  by  those  less  valuable,  and  in  the  long  run  the 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST 


213 


FIG.  45.— A  Stand  of  Hardwoods  after  a  Thinning.     Massachusetts. 


214          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

prospective  value  of  the  stand  and  the  final  yield  will  be 
very  much  reduced.  A  thinning  will  save  the  trees  of 
value,  and  there  are  certainly  a  great  many  instances  in 
which  an  actual  outlay  will  be  not  only  fully  justified  but 
necessary  if  the  purpose  of  management  is  to  be  accom- 
plished. 

In  applying  the  principles  relating  to  the  grade  of 
thinnings,  the  forester  often  finds  it  necessary  to  depart 
widely  from  the  normal.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
mixed  forests,  and  those  not  perfectly  regular.  A  stand 
which  has  been  established  under  management,  and 
cleaned  at  the  right  time,  presents  a  quite  different  prob- 
lem from  a  volunteer  stand  which  has  developed  on  an 
area  cleared  by  fire  or  windfall  and  has  never  been  treat- 
ed at  all.  In  the  latter  there  are  great  irregularities. 
In  spite  of  these  irregularities  the  principles  of  thin- 
nings may  be  applied  in  our  even-aged  stands. 

In  this  country  the  forests  in  which  thinnings  are 
practised  are  now  for  the  most  part  privately  owned. 
Private  forests  will,  in  the  main,  be  handled  on  a  rela- 
tively short  rotation.  The  object  will  be  to  raise  as 
large  trees  as  possible  within  a  given  time.  Usually  the 
grade  of  the  trees  will  not  be  so  important  as  the  size. 
The  general  policy  will  be  to  keep  the  forest  dense  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  rotation  so  as  to  produce  reason- 
ably good  form,  and  to  thin  rather  heavily  during  the 
last  half  of  the  rotation. 

In  thinnings  at  all  ages  the  forester  should  mark  for 
removal  all  the  dead,  dying,  and  defective  trees  that  can 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST  21 5 

be  disposed  of.  During  the  first  half  of  the  rotation  the 
aim  is  to  improve  the  form  of  the  good  trees,  and  to  pre- 
vent a  too  great  reduction  of  the  crown.  Trees  of  poor 
form,  with  spreading  crowns,  and  those  of  poor  species 
which  are  crowding  better  ones,  are  therefore  cut.  If  no 
thinning  is  made  until  after  middle  life,  the  spreading 
trees  will  have  done  their  principal  damage.  Such  trees 
are  cut  only  when  the  trees  crowded  by  them  are  capable 
of  prompt  recovery  and  rapid  growth. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  rotation  the  aim  should  be 
to  thin  to  about  a  C  grade,  and  then  to  increase  to  a  D 
grade,  or  sometimes  even  a  heavier  cutting.  Thinnings 
are  repeated  when  the  crowns  close  together  over  the 
openings. 

There  are  frequently  overcrowded  groups  among  the 
dominant  trees.  These  are  usually  thinned  by  cutting  the 
co-dominant  trees,  or  such  of  the  dominant  trees  as  have 
the  shortest  crowns.  Sometimes,  however,  the  removal 
of  one  dominant  tree  will  stimulate  the  growth  of  several 
co-dominant  trees  which,  in  the  long  run,  would  be  over- 
topped and  crowded  out  by  the  former.  If  these  trees 
are  released,  their  aggregate  value  will  ultimately  be 
greater  tha'n  that  of  the  single  dominant  tree.  This 
principle  is  used  in  thinnings  at  all  ages. 

In  a  great  deal  of  work  in  this  country  the  thin- 
nings will  tend  toward  the  French  principle,  and  leave 
the  subordinate  classes  standing.  This  will  usually  be 
because  the  small  material  is  not  merchantable,  rather 
than  because  it  is  desirable  to  leave  it  for  silvicultural 


216          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

reasons.  Wherever  there  is  danger  from  windfall,  a 
stand  must  be  opened  gradually  by  moderate  and  fre- 
quent thinnings.  In  the  same  way,  stands  of  trees  with 
thin  bark  must  be  opened  gradually  to  prevent  sun- 
scald,  which  frequently  occurs,  for  instance,  with  second- 
growth  white  pine. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  make  openings  in  the  canopy 
which  will  be  more  or  less  permanent.  This  occurs 
when  groups  of  damaged  trees  have  to  be  removed. 

Accretion  Cuttings 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  stands  are  heavily 
thinned  the  trees  usually  show  a  marked  increase  in 
growth.  This  is  due  to  the  greater  amount  of  light,  and 
the  stimulation  this  gives  to  the  activity  of  assimilation. 
The  increased  growth  may  be  called  light  growth.  It 
takes  place  after  thinnings  when,  by  crowding,  the  crowns 
have  been  prevented  from  receiving  as  much  light  as 
they  could  utilize;  when  the  trees  are  vigorous  enough  to 
respond  to  the  new  conditions;  and  when  there  is  enough 
moisture  and  nourishment  in  the  soil  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  increasingly  active  crowns. 

The  endeavor  of  modern  forestry  is  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  light  growth,  particularly  during  the 
last  half  of  a  stand's  rotation.  Practically  all  foresters  are 
agreed  that  during  the  first  part  of  the  rotation  the  forest 
must  be  kept  dense  to  produce  trees  of  good  form.  The 
principal  difference  in  methods  concerns  the  handling 
of  the  stand  to  secure  the  maximum  light  growth. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST  217 

The  various  methods  developed  to  secure  this  object 
are  called  accretion  methods,  or  methods  of  accretion 
cuttings. 

The  two-storied  system  of  management  is  really  an 
accretion  method;  but  since  it  involves  the  reproduction 
of  a  stand  to  be  grown  with  the  main  trees,  it  was  de- 
scribed under  the  silvicultural  systems.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  systems  of  reserves  involve  the  same  principle  of 
giving  individual  trees  full  light. 

One  method  of  taking  advantage  of  an  accelerated 
growth  is  to  make  a  long  period  of  reproduction  under 
the  shelterwood  system,  The  reproduction  cuttings  are 
begun  earlier  than  usual.  When  the  seed-cutting  is 
made,  the  trees  left  standing  are  chosen  primarily  with 
reference  to  their  ability  to  produce  a  more  rapid 
growth.  During  the  lengthened  period  of  reproduc- 
tion there  is  thus  secured  a  large  growth.  This  method 
is  employed  only  where  the  rotation  is  relatively  short, 
as,  for  example,  in  spruce  100  years  of  age  or  under. 
With  old  stands  there  would  be  little  response  to  the 
changed  light  conditions,  and  hence  very  little  or  no 
light  growth. 

Probably  the  most  common  method  used  in  Europe 
is  that  of  underplanting.  When  the  trees  have  reached 
their  main  height-growth  and  have  developed  the  form 
desired,  the  stand  is  thinned  very  heavily  and  under- 
planted.  The  aim  is  to  give  to  the  best  dominant  trees 
in  the  stand  just  the  amount  of  light  they  can  fully  utilize 
in  making  growth.  In  order  that  there  may  be  as  many 


218          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

trees  per  acre  as  possible,  and  hence  a  maximum  total 
yield,  no  more  space  is  given  than  is  necessary  to  accom- 
plish this  purpose.  The  accretion  cutting  is  made  be- 
tween the  50th  and  the  80th  years. 

The  purpose  of  the  underplanting  is  to  protect  the 
soil  from  deterioration.  The  rank  growth  of  grass, 
weeds,  blueberry-bushes,  and  the  like,  is  a  detriment 
rather  than  a  benefit.  An  understory  of  a  favorable 
tree  species  conserves  and  improves  the  quality  of  the 
soil. 

Underplanting  is  most  needed  with  intolerant  spe- 
cies, which  usually  have  a  light  foliage.  The  understory 
must  be  composed  of  a  species  capable  of  living  in  the 
shade  of  the  old  trees.  Under  a  light  canopy  of  Scotch 
pine,  ash,  or  larch,  trees  of  moderate  tolerance  can  be 
planted.  Under  species  with  dense  foliage,  tolerant 
species  must  be  used.  Naturally,  the  species  must  be 
one  adapted  to  the  given  site.  In  Europe,  beech  is  re- 
garded as  the  best  tree  for  underplanting.  Other  species 
used  are  hornbeam,  linden,  maple,  and  sometimes  toler- 
ant conifers. 

The  function  of  the  underwood  is  soil  protection.  It 
is  not  expected  to  produce  a  merchantable  crop,  except 
when  the  two-storied  system  is  used.  The  cuttings  in 
the  overwood  are  made  without  regard  to  it.  The  aim 
is  merely  to  keep  it  alive,  regardless  of  its  form.  Crip- 
pled, spreading  trees  may  make  as  good  cover  as  straight 
ones. 

The  underplanting  is  purely   a   cultural   operation. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    FOREST  219 

The  returns  from  it  must  be  sought  in  the  maintenance 
or  improvement  of  the  soil  conditions  and  in  the  sus- 
tained rapid  growth  of  the  trees.  Without  underplanting 
the  soil  often  suffers  from  loss  of  moisture  and  nourish- 
ment, and  the  growth  of  the  tree  drops  off. 

Underplanting  is  an  intensive  operation.  So  far  as  the 
author  is  informed,  it  has  not  yet  been  practised  in  this 
country.  Such  underplanting  as  has  been  undertaken 
here  has  been  for  advance  reproduction  or  for  esthetic 
purposes. 

Improvement  Work  in  Irregular  Stands 

In  this  country  there  are  a  great  many  second-growth 
stands  which  are  uneven-aged  and  irregular.  Some  of 
these  stands  have  resulted  from  very  slow  natural  repro- 
duction on  old  clearings.  Others  are  the  result  of  hap- 
hazard cutting  and  irregular  reproduction.  Competing 
with  the  best  trees  there  are  many  trees  of  poor  form  and 
of  poor  species,  and  many  defective  trees.  Such  stands 
require  thinnings  to  improve  their  composition  and 
growth. 

The  stand  is  essentially  immature.  If  there  are  old, 
straggling  trees  which  interfere  with  the  stand's  develop- 
ment, thev  are  cut.  The  thinning  further  removes  de- 
fective trees  of  all  classes,  together  with  malformed  trees 
and  poor  species,  except  when  the  density  is  so  poor  that 
they  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  canopy.  Crowded 
groups  are  thinned  by  cutting  intermediate  and  co-domi- 
nant trees,  and  oftentimes  a  dominant  tree  is  taken  for 


220          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

the  benefit  of  two  or  more  co-dominant  or  intermediate 
trees. 

Frequently  the  removal  of  an  old  straggler  or  of  de- 
fective trees  makes  openings  of  a  permanent  character,  in 
which  natural  reproduction  takes  place.  Nevertheless, 
this  is  an  improvement  cutting,  not  a  reproduction  cut- 
ting. The  whole  aim  is  to  improve  the  immature  stand. 
If  the  defects  and  irregularity  of  the  stand  result  in  open- 
ings large  enough  for  reproduction,  this  cannot  be 
helped;  and  in  that  case  the  cutting  is  so  made  as  to  get 
as  good  natural  reproduction  as  possible.  In  most  of  the 
thinnings  only  temporary  openings  are  made. 

Improvement  Work  in  Selection  Forests 

In  selection  forests,  thinnings  are  sometimes  made — 
provided  there  is  a  market  for  the  product — for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  immature  trees.  Such  thinnings  are  made  at 
the  time  the  mature  trees  are  cut.  In  principle,  they  are 
of  the  same  character  as  those  just  described  for  irregular 
second-growth  stands.  The  good  specimens  of  all  ages 
are  protected  by  removing  undesirable  crowding  indi- 
viduals. Seedling  growth  is  aided  by  cutting  away  poor 
specimens  over  it,  and  sometimes  even  by  cutting  advance 
growth  and  brush,  just  as  in  a  cleaning  in  an  even-aged 
group.  In  such  work,  the  principles  of  practically  every 
kind  of  cutting  are  employed — cleanings  in  young 
groups,  thinnings  in  even-aged  patches,  and  damage- 
cuttings  in  injured  young  groups. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    FOREST  221 

Damage-Cuttings 

In  nearly  every  forest  there  is  some  damage  by  wind, 
lightning,  ice,  snow,  insects,  disease,  or  fire.  Good  for- 
estry calls  for  the  removal  of  damaged  material  as  soon 
as  practicable,  not  only  to  utilize  what  is  still  fit  before  it 
deteriorates  beyond  usefulness,  but  also  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  insects  and  disease. 

If  a  mature  forest  is  badly  damaged,  it  is  cut  and 
reproduced  as  soon  as  practicable. 

It  frequently  happens  that  an  immature  stand  is  dam- 
aged, and  a  large  number  of  trees  are  so  injured  that  they 
ought  to  be  cut.  Their  removal  involves  a  heavier 
opening  of  the  stand  than  if  the  forest  were  thinned,  and 
often  makes  permanent  openings  in  the  canopy.  Such  a 
heavy  cutting  in  an  immature  stand,  required  by  fire, 
windfall,  or  otherwise,  may  be  called  a  damage-cutting. 

When  a  stand  has  been  so  damaged,  the  forester  must 
determine  whether  it  will  pay  to  leave  the  uninjured  trees 
standing.  If  the  stand  is  approaching  maturity  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  is  injured,  it  is  usually  reproduced,  ahead 
of  the  normal  time.  If  the  damage  is  localized,  that  por- 
tion may  be  reproduced.  If  the  damage  is  confined  to 
only  a  few  patches,  the  injured  material  is  removed,  and 
the  openings  are  left  to  natural  reproduction  or,  in  the 
case  of  intensive  practise,  are  filled  by  planting. 

Sometimes  a  surface  fire  runs  through  an  immature 
stand,  killing  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  trees.  The 
remainder  are  rapid-growing,  and  the  loss  of  growth 


222 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


FIG.  46. — A  Thinning  in  Progress  in  a  Shortleaf  Pine  Stand. 
North  Carolina. 


Biltmore, 


FIG.   47.— Example  of  a  Damage-Cutting.     Trees  Removed  Because 
Infected  by  Insects.     Black  Hills  National  Forest,  South  Dakota. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE   FOREST  223 

through  their  removal  would  be  large.  When  possible, 
the  good  trees  are  retained,  either  as  reserves  or  as  an 
upper-story,  or  brought  to  merchantable  size  as  an  in- 
complete stand. 

Pruning. 

The  pruning  of  forest  trees  is  confined  chiefly  to  cut- 
ting off  the  lower  branches,  in  order  to  have  as  much  of 
the  stem  as  possible  clear  of  knots,  and  so  raise  the  grade 
of  the  lumber  produced.  As  a  rule,  forest  trees  are  not 
pruned  at  all,  but  there  is  a  natural  cleaning  of  the  stem, 
called  natural  pruning,  by  the  loss  of  the  lower  branches 
as  a  result  of  the  crowding  of  the  trees.  Often,  however, 
natural  pruning  fails  to  give  satisfactory  results.  With 
many  species  the  branches  remain  on  the  tree  long  after 
they  die,  and  their  stubs  produce  loose  knots  in  the  lum- 
ber. The  branches  of  white  pine,  even  in  crowded  stands, 
persist  for  many  years  after  their  death;  but  after  a  time 
they  drop  off,  and  the  wood  subsequently  made  yields 
lumber  clear  of  knots.  Very  old  white  pine-trees,  there- 
fore, yield  a  good  proportion  of  clear  lumber  if  they  have 
grown  in  crowded  stands.  But  if  this  species  is  managed 
on  a  short  rotation  very  little  clear  material  is  ordinarily 
obtained,  unless  the  trees  are  pruned.  An  unpruned 
stand,  cut  at  from  50  to  60  years  of  age,  yields  but  little 
clear  lumber;  whereas,  if  the  trees  had  been  pruned  when 
from  20  to  30  years  old  the  wood  produced  during  the 
last  half  of  the  rotation  would  have  been  free  from  knots. 

Pruning  is  a  relatively  expensive  operation.     It  in- 


224  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

volves  an  investment  whose  return  appears  in  the  in- 
creased value  of  the  final  product.  It  is  practised  only 
when  stands  are  intensively  managed,  and  even  then  the 
work  is  confined  to  a  limited  number  of  the  most  valuable 
and  promising  trees  in  the  stand.  Usually  not  over  100 
trees  per  acre  are  pruned,  and  these  are  selected  individ- 
uals which  are  of  good  form,  thrifty,  and  most  likely  to 
be  the  choicest  trees  in  the  final  stand. 

The  aim  is  to  clear  off  the  branches  for  a  distance  of 
about  16  or  18  feet,  enough  to  include  one  saw-log.  This 
is  about  as  high  as  it  is  practicable  to  prune,  even  with 
the  help  of  ladders  and  long-handled  saws  and  hooks. 

The  period  for  pruning  is  usually  when  the  stand  is 
from  20  to  40  years  old.  In  most  cases  only  dead  branches 
are  cut,  though  a  live  branch  may  be  cut  here  and  there. 
The  work  is  not  undertaken  until  the  branches  are  dead 
fora  distance  of  from  16  to  20  feet  above  the  ground. 
Some  of  the  limbs  can  be  knocked  off  by  a  blow  from  a 
stick,  or  pulled  off  with  a  hook.  The  larger  limbs  have 
to  be  sawed  off.  Care  is  taken  to  make  the  cut  close  to 
the  trunk. 

The  cost  of  pruning  conifers  from  20  to  40  years  old 
is  about  2  cents  a  tree. 

Forest  pruning  will  not  be  extensively  practised  in 
this  country  for  some  time.  For  the  most  part,  it  will 
be  confined  to  comparatively  small  tracts  which  are  inten- 
sively managed,  and  to  valuable  individual  trees  here  and 
there  in  the  forest. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PROTECTION   OF   FORESTS   FROM   FIRE 

THE  first  measure  necessary  for  the  successful  practise 
of  forestry  is  protection  from  forest  fires.  As  long  as 
there  is  any  considerable  risk  from  fire,  forest  owners  have 
little  incentive  to  make  provision  for  natural  reproduc- 
tion, to  plant  trees,  to  make  improvement  cuttings,  or  to 
do  other  work  looking  to  continued  forest  reproduction. 

In  many  localities  great  progress  has  lately  been  made 
in  forest  protection.  Organized  fire  protection  has  been 
established  in  the  National  Forests  and  in  most  of  the 
State  forest  reservations.  A  number  of  States  have  begun 
to  develop  systematic  fire  protection  on  private  lands, 
through  the  organization  of  State  fire  wardens.  In  some 
instances  private  owners  have  formed  cooperative  associa- 
tions for  fire  protection  and  employ  a  regular  force  of 
rangers  for  patrol  during  the  fire  season.  The  most  con- 
spicuous and  successful  associations  are  those  formed  by 
certain  lumber  companies  in  Idaho  and  Washington. 
Throughout  the  country  there  are  here  and  there  in- 
stances of  serious  effort  toward  thorough  fire  protection 
by  individual  private  owners.  In  spite  of  all  that  has 
been  done,  however,  the  fact  remains  that  most  of  the 
forests  of  the  country,  particularly  those  privately  owned, 

225 


226  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

are  inadequately  protected  from  fire.  It  is  probable  that 
in  fully  75  per  cent,  of  the  private  forests  there  is  no 
attempt  whatever  at  systematic  protection. 

Character  of  Forest  Fires 

It  is  customary  to  distinguish  three  classes  of  forest 
fires,  as  follows: 

1.  Surface  fires,  which  burn  the  surface  layer  of  dry 
leaves  and  other  litter,  dry  grass,  brush,  and  small  trees. 

2.  Ground fires,  which  occur  where  the  mineral  soil  is 
covered  with  a  deep  accumulation  of  vegetable  mold,  and 
which,  on  account  of  the  peaty  character  of  the  material, 
burn  much  more  slowly  than  surface  fires. 

3.  Crown  fires,  which  burn  through  the  crowns  of  the 
trees. 

Surface  Fires 

Nearly  all  forest  fires  start  as  surface  fires.  The  dry 
litter  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  ignited  by  a  spark, 
perhaps  from  a  locomotive  or  a  camp-fire.  At  first  the 
fire  burns  in  a  small  circle,  gradually  eating  out  in  all  di- 
rections. If  there  is  a  wind,  the  fire  burns  with  greatest 
intensity  on  the  leeward  side,  and  quickly  assumes  an 
oval  form.  If  the  wind  is  very  strong,  the  fire  may  die 
out  entirely  on  the  windward  side,  but  it  burns  intensely 
on  the  other  side,  soon  developing  a  distinct  front  or 
head,  with  side  wings  running  diagonally  with  the  wind. 
At  first  the  front  of  the  fire  is  very  narrow,  but  it  gradu- 
ally widens  and  takes  the  form  of  a  broad,  irregular  line. 
The  front  may  reach  indefinite  proportions,  from  a  few 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  227 

hundred  feet  to  a  number  of  miles  in  width.  Irregular- 
ities of  topography  and  differences  in  the  amount  of 
inflammable  material  cause  the  fire  to  burn  more  rapidly 
in  some  spots  than  in  others,  so  that  the  entire  front  be- 
comes scalloped  and  irregular. 

Ordinarily  a  surface  fire  simply  burns  along  the 
ground  and  does  not  get  into  the  tops  of  the  trees. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  flames  reach  up  into  the  crowns 
and  scorch  them,  or  even  ignite  them  here  and  there;  but 
such  a  fire  still  has  the  character  of  a  surface  fire,  unless 
it  actually  burns  through  the  crowns. 

The  manner  of  burning,  the  form  of  the  fire  area,  the 
rapidity  of  burning,  and  the  intensity  of  the  fire  depend 
upon  the  following  conditions: 

1.  The  character  and  quantity  of  inflammable  mate- 
rial. 

2.  The  topography. 

3.  The  character  of  the  soil. 

4.  The  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 
Inflammable  Material. — The  severity  of  a  surface  fire 

depends  largely  on  the  quantity  of  dry  material  in  the 
forest.  If  there  is  an  accumulation  of  leaves  represent- 
ing the  fall  of  a  number  of  years  the  fire  is  much  more 
severe  than  if  the  litter  is  the  result  of  the  fall  of  only 
a  year  or  two.  The  quantity  of  accumulated  litter  is 
greatest  with  species  having  large  leaves  and  large  crowns. 
Maple  and  red  oak,  for  example,  make  a  heavier  litter 
than  ash  or  birch;  white  pine  makes  a  heavier  litter  than 
pitch  pine.  The  severity  of  a  fire  depends  further  on 


228  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


• 


FIG.  48. — A  Fire  Burning  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


FIG.   49. — A  Surface  Fire  in  a  Longleaf  Pine  Forest  in  the  South. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  229 

the  character  of  the  leaves.  A  layer  of  resinous  softwood 
needles  burns  more  rapidly  and  with  a  hotter  fire  than 
does  a  layer  of  hardwood  leaves. 

The  amount  of  dry  wood  on  the  ground  influences 
largely  the  severity  of  a  fire.  In  some  types  of  forest 
there  are  a  great  number  of  fallen  dead  trees,  which  litter 
the  ground,  and  thus  increase  the  fire  danger.  This  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  lodgepole  pine  forests  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  localities  subject  to  windfall  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  large  amount  of  fallen  timber,  while  fires, 
disease,  and  insects  leave  standing  dead  trees  and  snags, 
which  are  easily  ignited.  After  lumbering  in  the  old- 
fashioned  way,  the  ground  is  covered  with  a  mass  of  tops 
and  rejected  logs,  which  soon  become  dry  and  highly 
inflammable. 

Again,  the  condition  of  the  litter  and  debris  governs 
largely  the  character  and  severity  of  the  fire.  The  most 
severe  fires  occur  where  the  material  is  thoroughly  dried 
to  the  mineral  soil.  When  the  material  is  only  partially 
dry  the  fire  is  slow,  and  the  litter  is  not  completely 
burned. 

Since  the  ground  litter  is,  as  a  rule,  unevenly  dis- 
tributed, a  surface  fire  burns  very  irregularly.  Still 
another  cause  of  the  irregularity  of  surface  fires  is  the 
varying  soil  moisture. 

Topography. — A  fire  runs  uphill  with  great  rapidity, 
because  the  heated  air-currents  draw  the  flames  upward. 
If  the  litter  is  evenly  distributed,  the  velocity  with  which 
a  fire  will  run  up  a  slope  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the 


230  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

steepness  of  the  slope.  After  passing  the  crest,  a  fire 
travels  more  slowly  in  its  descent  on  the  other  side. 

Mechanical  obstructions,  such  as  abrupt  walls,  narrow 
ridges,  outcropping  ledges,  and  so  on,  tend  to  check  a 
fire  and  to  prevent  its  gathering  volume.  On  extensive 
level  ground,  fires  burn  more  uniformly,  gather  a  greater 
volume,  generally  do  more  damage,  and  extend  over  a 
larger  area  than  in  rugged  topography. 

Character  of  the  Soil. — Any  influence  which  tends  to 
dryness  increases  the  intensity  of  a  fire.  Thus  on  sand 
and  limestone  soils,  which  warm  up  and  dry  out  readily, 
fires  are  likely  to  be  very  severe.  Southern  and  western 
slopes  are  apt  to  be  more  severely  burned  than  others, 
because  they  are  the  warm  and  dry  exposures. 

Condition  of  the  Atmosphere. — The  character  of  a 
fire  is  influenced,  further,  by  the  condition  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Roughly,  the  greater  the  velocity  of  the  wind, 
the  more  rapid  is  the  progress  of  the  fire.  A  fire  burns 
more  severely  when  the  wind  is  constant  than  when  it  is 
gusty.  It  is  the  steady  high  wind  which  makes  the  most 
intense  fire. 

A  fire  burns  most  fiercely  when  the  atmosphere  is 
dry.  Fires  are,  therefore,  most  severe  during  the  hot 
part  of  the  day,  and  when  fanned  by  a  dry  wind.  A 
moist  atmosphere  retards  a  forest  fire.  The  well-known 
fact  that  the  night  is  the  best  time  to  fight  a  fire  is  thus 
explained;  for  at  night  there  is  usually  little  or  no  wind, 
while  the  air  is  comparatively  heavy  and  damp. 

Rapidity  of  Surface  Fires. — No  reliable  estimate  of 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  231 

the  rapidity  of  surface  fires  can  be  made,  because  it  varies 
so  greatly  under  different  conditions.  In  the  hardwood 
regions  of  the  East  a  surface  fire  seldom  travels  more  than 
5  miles  a  day,  but  in  the  coniferous  forests  of  the  West 
instances  are  known  where  this  rate  of  speed  has  been 
more  than  doubled. 

Grass  Fires. — In  nearly  all  open  forests  there  is  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  grass  which,  when  dried,  carries  fire  very 
rapidly.  In  many  forests  the  presence  of  grass  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  important  problems  connected  with  sur- 
face fires.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  Southern  pine 
forests. 

A  grass  fire  is  more  influenced  by  the  density  of  the 
grass  than  by  its  height.  Where  the  grass  is  in  separated 
patches,  with  no  leaves  or  other  inflammable  material 
between,  it  is  difficult  for  a  fire  to  spread.  Uniformly 
dense  grass  burns  with  the  greatest  intensity.  High 
grass  burns  with  greater  intensity  than  low  grass,  but  the 
fire  does  not  usually  run  so  rapidly.  Grass  a  foot  high, 
if  dense,  may  produce  such  a  hot  fire  as  to  start  a  crown 
fire.  In  short  grass,  with  an  ordinary  wind,  a  fire  will 
run  from  3  to  4  miles  an  hour;  with  a  high  wind,  twice 
as  fast.  The  chief  factors  affecting  the  burning  of  grass 
are  its  dryness  and  the  force  of  the  wind.  Other  factors 
have  their  influence,  however,  just  as  they  do  in  the 
burning  of  litter. 

Brush  Fires. — Bushes  and  small  trees  frequently 
retain  many  dried  leaves  late  into  the  fall,  and  in  some 
cases  even  into  the  following  spring.  This  is  particular- 


232  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

ly  true  of  some  of  the  oaks.  A  fire  will  sometimes  run 
through  such  brush  and  do  an  immense  amount  of  dam- 
age. Such  a  fire  is  called  a  brush  fire.  It  is  carried 
along  in  part  by  the  burning  of  the  litter,  but,  wherever 
the  opportunity  offers,  it  runs  up  through  the  dried 
leaves,  remaining  on  the  brush.  In  the  eastern  United 
States  a  brush  fire  is  most  likely  to  run  during  the  late 
fall.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  it  has  rather  the 
character  of  a  surface  fire  than  that  of  a  crown  fire 

Fires  running  through  young  stands  of  conifers  con- 
sume the  foliage  and  readily  kill  the  trees.  In  a  very 
young  stand,  in  which  the  trees  stand  isolated  and  the 
crowns  have  not  yet  grown  together,  the  fire  has  the 
nature  of  a  surface  fire,  intensified  by  the  burning  crowns. 
If  the  crowns  meet,  and  there  is  a  more  or  less  complete 
canopy,  a  true  crown  fire  is  developed. 

A  special  class  of  brush  fires  are  those  in  the  chaparral 
of  the  Southwest.  The  brush  is  dense  and  there  are 
many  species  with  inflammable  foliage.  In  many  places 
a  thick  layer  of  litter  and  humus  is  formed  on  the 
ground,  just  as  in  a  dense  forest.  Fires  in  this  class  of 
scrub  forest  are  very  fierce  and  destructive.  They  are 
analogous  to  fires  in  dense  stands  of  young  conifers. 

Ground  Fires 

This  term  is  applied  to  the  slow  fires  that  burn  in  the 
deep  accumulations  of  vegetable  matter  common  in  many 
of  our  damp  Northern  forests.  Here  the  fallen  leaves, 
needles,  and  other  offcastings  of  the  trees  decompose 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  233 

very  slowly,  and  a  deep  layer  of  partially  decayed  organic 
matter  accumulates,  often  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3  feet. 
This  material  absorbs  moisture  with  avidity  and  retains 
it  tenaciously.  Consequently,  in  moist  seasons  it  is  not 
readily  ignited.  In  some  seasons,  however,  it  becomes 
thoroughly  dry  and  will  burn.  A  fire  in  this  peaty  sub- 
stance burns  slowly,  but  with  very  intense  heat,  and  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  extinguish.  Ground  fires  in  the 
Adirondacks  have  been  known  to  burn  all  winter,  creep- 
ing along  under  a  deep  layer  of  snow. 

Ordinarily  a  ground  fire  does  not  cover  more  than  a 
few  acres  in  a  day.  Frequently,  however,  there  is  upon 
the  surface  a  large  amount  of  dry  debris  or -small  coni- 
ferous trees  so  that  there  accompanies  the  ground  fire 
a  surface  fire  or  a  brush  fire,  or  both,  and  occasionally 
a  crown  fire. 

Crown   Fires. 

Crown  fires  are  those  which  burn  through  the  crowns 
of  the  trees.  They  almost  invariably  start  from  surface 
fires.  Occasionally,  however,  they  are  started  when  light- 
ning strikes  and  ignites  a  dry  stub  or  resinous  tree  sur- 
rounded by  a  dense  stand  of  conifers.  If  the  crowns 
are  of  such  a  character  that  they  will  burn,  they  may  be 
easily  ignited  by  the  flames  which  rise  from  a  surface 
fire.  Sometimes  a  crown  fire  is  started  by  the  flames 
from  a  burning  clump  of  young  growth,  and  where  the 
trees  have  exuded  resin  or  there  is  loose  inflammable 
bark,  a  crown  fire  may  be  started  by  the  flames  running 
up  the  tnmk. 


234          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

Crown  fires  occur  when  the  woods  are  very  dry,  and 
when  there  is  a  high  wind.  Without  a  strong  wind  a 
crown  fire  is  seldom  started,  and  even  if  the  crown  of  an 
individual  tree  is  ignited,  a  fire  does  not  usually  spread 
and  run  through  the  crowns  on  a  still  day.  Before  a 
high  wind,  a  crown  fire  spreads  with  great  velocity,  tak- 
ing at  once  a  V-shaped  form  with  a  distinct  front  or 
head.  This  head  may  be  only  from  50  to  100  feet  wide, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  largest  fires  its  width  may  be  very 
great.  In  the  case  of  the  larger  fires  the  front  is  gener- 
ally carried  forward  by  a  series  of  heads.  The  head  of 
the  fire  burns  very  rapidly  through  the  crowns,  and  there 
follows  closely  a  surface  fire  burning  with  the  same  rapid- 
ity. There  are  well-developed  wings,  where  the  fire 
runs  through  the  crowns  on  each  side  of  the  head. 
These,  in  turn,  are  accompanied  by  surface  fires,  while 
spreading  out  on  the  skirts  are  wider  surface  fires,  eating 
out  diagonally  with  the  wind  and  covering  a  broader  area 
than  the  crown  fire. 

The  strong  draft  of  heated  air  arising  from  the  fire 
carries  up  with  it  an  immense  quantity  of  burning  cin- 
ders and  pieces  of  bark.  The  wind,  in  turn,  carries  this 
material  far  in  advance  of  the  main  fire-head,  and  thus 
innumerable  new  surface  fires  are  started.  This  gives 
rise  to  the  popular  idea  of  a  spontaneous  starting  of  fires 
in  advance  of  a  crown  fire. 

An  ordinary  crown  fire  does  not  run  more  than  2  or 
3  miles  an  hour,  although  undoubtedly  the  great  con- 
flagrations of  the  north  woods,  such  as  the  famous  Hinck- 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  235 

ley  fire  in  Minnesota  in  1894,  are  swept  along  at  a  much 
greater  rate,  particularly  if  the  starting  of  new  fires  by 
burning  cinders  is  taken  into  consideration.  Even  in 
extreme  cases,  however,  it  is  questionable  whether  crown 
fires  burn  at  a  rate  of  more  than  from  6  to  10  miles  an 
hour. 

The  behavior  of  a  crown  fire  depends  on  the  character 
of  the  crowns.  Crown  fires  are  mainly  confined  to  coni- 
ferous forests,  for  the  leaves  of  hardwoods  are  not  easily 
ignited. 

They  may,  however,  run  through  forests  of  mixed 
hardwoods  and  conifers,  and  in  such  cases  the  heat  gen- 
erated is  so  great  that  the  hardwood  leaves  are  scorched 
or  killed.  The  velocity  of  the  fire  depends,  further,  on 
the  density  of  the  stand,  the  thickness  of  the  crowns,  and 
the  force  and  steadiness  of  the  wind.  Other  influences 
affect  the  severity  of  crown  fires  in  much  the  same  way  as 
they  affect  that  of  surface  fires. 

Damage  by  Fires 

The  damage  done  by  forest  fires  may  be  discussed 
under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Death  of  standing  trees. 

2.  Injury  to  trees  that  are  not  killed. 

3.  Injury  to  the  soil. 

4.  Reduction  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  stand. 

5.  Effect  on  reproduction. 

Death  of  Standing  Trees. — Crown  fires  usually  kill 
outright  all  trees  in  their  path.  In  a  severe  crown  fire 


236  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  foliage  of  coniferous  trees  is  completely  consumed. 
Hardwood  trees  in  mixture  are  generally  so  badly  scorched 
that  the  buds,  leaves,  and  living  tissues  in  other  finer 
parts  of  the  tree  are  killed,  if  not  consumed,  by  the  heat. 
Sometimes,  however,  where  the  fire  burns  somewhat 
irregularly — as,  for  example,  where  there  are  a  good 
many  hardwoods  in  mixture  or  the  fire  is  broken  by 
irregularities  in  topography — many  single  trees  or  groups 
of  trees  escape  injury. 

Ground  fires,  also,  usually  kill  all  trees  in  their  way, 
for  although  they  burn  very  slowly,  they  generate  a  great 
volume  of  heat  and  kill  the  living  tissues  of  the  roots. 
Sometimes  the  injury  is  not  apparent  above  ground  at 
all,  but  the  trees  die  and,  after  a  time,  are  blown  over, 
because  the  roots  have  been  killed  and  weakened. 

Surface  fires  kill  seedlings  and  young  trees  with  ten- 
der bark,  but  in  a  great  many  cases  do  not  kill  outright 
the  larger  trees.  Nevertheless,  a  very  severe  surface  fire 
may  kill  everything  in  its  path,  and,  not  uncommonly, 
hardwood  forests  are  entirely  destroyed  by  fires  which  do 
not  at  any  time  assume  the  character  and  proportions  of 
crown  fires. 

Some  species  have  much  greater  power  of  resisting 
surface  fire  than  have  others.  This  is  usually  due  to  the 
character  and  thickness  of  the  bark.  Trees  with  delicate, 
thin  bark  are  killed  much  more  readily  than  those  with 
thick,  corky  bark.  Young  trees  are  killed  more  readily 
than  old  ones,  because  the  bark  is  thin,  and  there  has  not 
been  developed  the  layer  of  cork,  which  increases  in 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE 

amount  with  age.  Accordingly,  some  trees  which  are 
very  resistant  to  fire  when  mature  are  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive when  young.  Good  examples  are  the  Eastern  and 
Western  white  pines,  the  red  pine,  the  Western  larch, 
and  Douglas  fir.  The  cork  in  the  bark  acts  as  a  non- 
conductor, and  protects  the  living  tissues  from  overheat- 
ing. 

Some  species  exude  from  the  bark  a  great  deal  of 
resin,  which  catches  fire  and  increases  the  intensity  of  the 
heat.  A  good  example  is  lodgepole  pine,  which  often 
exudes  resin  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  trunk, 
and  increases  the  damage  by  fire.  Other  trees  have  soft, 
flaky  bark,  which  catches  fire  readily.  Like  the  resinous 
trees,  these  are  killed  at  the  point  burned  by  the  heat 
generated  in  this  way.  Shallow-rooted  trees  may  be 
killed  by  surface  fires  when  the  heat  of  the  burning 
humus  is  great  enough  to  injure  the  insufficiently  cov- 
ered roots. 

The  living  parts  of  a  tree  are  more  sensitive  to  intense 
heat  at  some  periods  of  the  year  than  at  others.  The 
most  sensitive  period  is  during  the  early  part  of  the 
growing  season,  when  active  cell  division  is  taking  place 
and  new  cells  are  being  formed,  which  are  tender  and 
naturally  sensitive  to  abnormal  conditions.  This  is  very 
well  shown  by  the  damage  of  late  spring  fires.  Thus,  a 
surface  fire  in  May  or  June  may  entirely  kill  hardwood 
trees  which  in  the  early  fall  would  successfully  resist  a  fire 
of  equal  severity. 

Living  tissue  is  killed  when  it  is  heated  to  54°  C. 


238  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

(  129.2°  R).1  Very  often  the  forester  wishes  to  deter- 
mine, after  a  fire,  the  extent  of  the  injury.  If  the  inner 
bark  is  brown  or  black,  in  contrast  to  the  normal  green 
color,  this  is  an  indication  that  the  cambium  is  dead. 

Injury  to  Trees. — Many  surface  fires  do  not  kill  trees 
outright,  but  seriously  injure  them  by  killing  a  portion 
of  the  roots  or  trunks.  It  is  very  common  to  find,  after 
a  fire,  that  nearly  all  the  trees  in  the  forest  have  been 
killed  on  one  side.  This  is  usually  the  leeward  side, 
because  here  the  flames  have  an  opportunity  to  run  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  tree  long  enough  to  injure  it. 
If  a  fire  is  burning  up  a  slope,  even  when  there  is  no 
wind,  the  upper  side  of  a  tree  is  usually  more  damaged 
than  the  lower  side,  both  because  of  the  accumulation 
of  leaves  and  other  litter  above  the  tree,  and  because  fires 
are  carried  upward  by  the  currents  of  hot  air,  just  as  a 
fire  on  level  ground  is  swept  along  by  the  wind. 

In  the  case  of  a  well-established  tree,  the  killing  of 
one  side  may  not  result  in  its  death  for  a  long  period; 
and  if  the  wound  is  not  large  it  may  heal  over.  Very 
commonly,  however,  the  killing  of  one  side  of  the  tree 
induces  the  attack  of  some  fungous  disease,  which  ulti- 
mately results  in  the  tree's  death.  Trees  injured  and 
weakened  by  fire  are  subject  to  the  attack  of  insects. 
In  many  cases  the  death  of  trees  after  a  burn  is  the  result 
of  insects'  work  and  not  of  the  killing  of  the  tissues  by 
the  fire.  Damage  by  fire  often  follows  damage  by  in- 

1 "  Der  Waldbau,"  by  Heinrich  Mayr,  p.  12. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  239 

sects.  Thus,  in  certain  conifers  insects  injure  the  trunks, 
causing  a  local  accumulation  of  pitch.  A  surface  fire 
later  burns  the  tree  at  this  point  and  kills  one  side. 
The  defect  called  " cat-face"  is  often  caused  in  this  way. 
Insect  attacks,  moreover,  by  increasing  the  number  of 
dead  trees  in  the  forest,  increase  the  fire  danger. 

In  the  case  of  large  trees,  which  are  very  resistant  to 
fire,  a  first  fire  may  kill  the  tissues  on  one  side,  and  sub- 
sequent fires  may  then  burn  into  the  dead  wood  until  the 
trunk  is  nearly  hollow.  This  result  is  very  commonly 
seen  in  large  white  pines  that  have  a  large  proportion  of 
the  butt  gouged  out  by  repeated  fires  and  are  still  alive. 
Many  of  the  large  trees  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  like  red  fir, 
yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  and  bigtree,  stand  for  many 
years  after  injury  of  this  character. 

The  damage  to  a  tree  by  killing  a  part  of  the  trunk 
or  a  part  of  the  root  depends  on  its  resisting  power  and  a 
variety  of  other  circumstances.  In  some  cases  the  tree  is 
so  weakened  by  the  burning  that  it  is  afterward  broken 
off  at  the  butt.  This  is  very  common  in  long-leaf  pine 
forests,  where  old  turpentine  "  boxes"  burn  out  and 
weaken  the  tree. 

The  injury  to  the  tree  usually  results  in  a  reduced 
rate  of  growth.  It  is  obvious  that  if  a  portion  of  the  tree 
is  killed,  the  whole  tree  cannot  perform  its  functions 
so  effectively  as  before.  The  killing  of  a  part  of  the 
crown,  stem,  or  root  system  necessarily  reduces  the 
amount  of  nourishment  which  the  tree  can  take  in  and 
furnish  the  growing  parts. 


240          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

It  is  not  only  in  shortening  life  and  in  reducing 
growth  that  fires  injure  trees;  the  quality  of  the  product 
is  also  affected.  Even  where  there  is  no  injury  by  in- 
sects or  fungous  disease,  a  fire  that  has  killed  one  side  of 
a  tree  usually  leaves  its  scar.  In  time  the  wound  may 
entirely  heal  over,  but  there  is  nearly  always  a  point  of 
weakness  which  may  ultimately  cause  a  seam  or  wind 
shake,  and  unfit  the  butt  log  for  lumber.  If  rot  sets  in, 
it  may  spread  throughout  the  trunk  and  make  the  tree 
worthless,  even  if  it  does  not  kill  it. 

Injury  to  the  Soil. — A  surface  fire  burns  the  dry 
leaves,  and  usually  the  humus  which  lies  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  If  the  trees  are  all  killed  by  the  fire,  the 
crown  cover,  as  well  as  the  layer  of  litter  and  humus,  is 
destroyed,  and  injury  to  the  soil  follows  this  exposure  to 
the  wind  and  sun.  If  the  canopy  is  not  seriously  inter- 
rupted by  the  fire,  and  only  the  surface  litter  and  humus 
are  burned,  the  extent  of  the  soil  injury  from  one  burn- 
ing is  not  serious.  A  very  light  surface  fire,  that  merely 
burns  off  the  dry  litter  formed  by  one  or  two  years'  fall 
of  leaves  has  little  influence  on  the  soil;  and  probably  no 
single  fire,  even  if  it  burned  the  entire  humus  and  layer 
of  litter  would  so  injure  the  soil  as  seriously  to  affect 
the  growth  of  well-established  trees.  Normally  in  every 
forest  a  certain  amount  of  humus  is  mixed  with  the  min- 
eral soil.  This  is  of  value,  both  physically  and  chemi- 
cally. If  a  forest  is  burned  over  repeatedly,  however, 
the  humus  in  mixture  gradually  disappears,  and  since 
the  leaves  which  fall  are  destroyed,  and  no  new  humus  is 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  241 

formed,  the  soil  is  injured.  While  the  soil  loses  its  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  and  the  physical  benefits  of  humus,  the 
mineral  ashes  are  not  lost,  except  as  they  are  subse- 
quently leached  away.  Nevertheless,  repeated  fires  are 
very  injurious  to  the  forest. 

Besides  the  direct  injury  to  the  soil  through  changes 
in  its  chemical  content  and  physical  quality,  fires  do  fur- 
ther damage  through  opening  the  way  to  soil  erosion. 
A  leaf  litter  reinforces  the  forest  canopy  in  protecting  the 
soil  against  the  impact  of  falling  rain,  and  the  network 
of  roots  which  fills  the  ground  holds  the  soil  in  place. 
The  greater  the  humus  content  of  the  soil,  the  more 
absorptive  the  soil  is.  Fires  leave  the  soil  in  condition 
to  be  easily  borne  away  by  running  water,  and  increase 
the  amount  of  water  which  runs  over  the  surface  instead 
of  sinking  in.  If  the  slopes  are  steep  and  the  soil  easily 
borne  away,  erosion  is  sure  to  follow  fires.  In  mountain 
country,  if  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  thin  soils  may  be  so 
badly  washed  as  to  be  no  longer  capable  of  supporting 
forest  growth. 

Reduction  of  Density. — Most  fires  kill  a  certain  num- 
ber of  trees,  or  injure  them  so  that  they  either  die  or 
deteriorate  in  value  before  the  forest  can  be  cut.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  immature  forests.  The  result 
is  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  trees  which  will  come  to 
maturity,  and  hence  a  reduction  of  the  total  increment 
and  the  final  yield. 

If  a  stand  is  mature  and  a  part  of  the  trees  are  injured 
or  killed,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  prevent  loss  by  cut- 


242          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

ting  directly  after  the  fire.  Often,  however,  it  is  not 
practicable  to  make  a  cutting  in  a  given  part  of  a  forest 
just  when  desired. 

When  some  of  the  trees  in  an  immature  stand  are 
killed  or  injured,  there  is  always  a  loss.  If  the  stand  is 
cut,  there  is  a  loss  through  cutting  trees  which  are  in  full 
productive  growth.  If  the  stand  is  allowed  to  grow,  the 
final  yield  is  reduced  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  reduction 
in  the  number  of  trees  killed  in  the  dominant  or  leading 
class. 

An  owner  is  often  confronted  with  the  problem  of 
dealing  with  an  immature  stand  in  which  a  part  of  the 
trees — say  30  to  60  per  cent. — are  killed  or  injured  by 
fire.  If  the  remaining  trees  are  sound  and  thrifty,  the 
best  plan  is  usually  to  cut  out  the  dead  and  damaged 
individuals,  utilizing  such  as  are  marketable,  and  permit 
the  remainder  to  mature,  provided  enough  can  be  real- 
ized to  cover  substantially  the  cost  of  the  work. 

Influence  on  Reproduction. — Reproduction  in  the 
forests  of  this  country  has  been  more  influenced  by  fire 
than  by  any  other  one  factor.  The  present  composition, 
form,  density,  and  yield  of  a  great  many  stands  are  due 
to  the  influence  of  fires  on  reproduction. 

Repeated  fires  prevent  reproduction  by  destroying  the 
seed  and  killing  the  seedlings.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  certain  areas  of  the  South,  where  longleaf  pine  is  not 
reproducing  itself — not  because  there  is  a  lack  of  seed  or 
because  the  conditions  for  germination  are  unfavorable, 
but  because  the  annual  fires  kill  the  young  trees. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  243 

Fires  may  influence  reproduction  through  their  effect 
on  the  soil  and  the  soil  cover.  Frequently  after  fires  the 
ground  is  occupied  by  heavy  brush  or  by  grass,  which 
impedes  or  in  some  cases  prevents  the  reproduction  of 
valuable  trees.  Many  of  the  grass  parks  in  the  Western 
mountains  are  the  result  of  fire.  A  grass  vegetation  has 
replaced  the  forest.  The  running  wild  of  burned  areas 
to  a  heavy  growth  of  brush  is  a  common  occurrence  after 
fires  in  many  of  our  Eastern  forests,  as,  for  example,  in 
Pennsylvania. 

Forest  fires  modify  the  composition  of  stands.  The 
opening  up  of  a  forest  may  so  change  the  conditions  of 
germination  that  some  species  cannot  develop  even  when 
seed  is  abundantly  supplied.  This  is  in  some  cases  due 
to  the  drying  of  the  soil.  A  species  W7hich  requires  pro- 
tection against  drought  in  early  youth  might  be  excluded 
from  openings  made  by  fire.  In  the  same  way  the  repro- 
duction of  a  species  sensitive  to  frost  in  early  youth  is 
often  confined  to  areas  protected  by  old  trees. 

\Yhere  the  fire  makes  a  large  clearing,  the  succeeding 
forest  usually  differs  in  composition  from  the  burned 
stand,  except  where  there  are  only  one  or  two  species 
native  to  the  region.  The  first  species  to  spring  up  on 
the  burn  are  those  whose  seed  is  readily  and  abundantly 
distributed  to  a  distance  from  the  seed-trees.  Thus,  in 
the  north  woods  of  the  East,  birch  and  aspen  are  among 
the  first  species,  because  their  seed  is  very  light  and  is 
blown  by  the  winds  to  great  distances.  Bird  cherry 
comes  up  in  abundance,  because  its  seed  is  spread  widely 


244          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

by  the  birds,  and  probably  much  of  it  is  already  in  the 
ground  before  the  fire.  The  trees  with  heavier  seed 
creep  in  gradually  after  a  few  years. 

Fires  may  kill  certain  non-resistant  species,  and  thus 
stop  their  supply  of  seed.  The  tendency  of  repeated 
fires  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  species  in  a  stand. 

The  Prevention  of  Fires 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  forest  fires  have 
always  been  of  such  common  occurrence  that  there  is  a 
popular  notion  that  they  cannot  be  prevented.  The  risk 
from  fires  can  never  be  entirely  eliminated,  for  in  the  for- 
est there  is  always  inflammable  material  which  is  very 
easily  ignited.  They  may,  however,  be  largely  pre- 
vented, and  under  efficient  organization  their  damage 
may  be  kept  down  to  a  very  small  amount.  The  prob- 
lem is  like  that  in  cities,  where  fires  can  never  be  entirely 
eliminated,  but  where  the  risk  of  loss  to  property  may  be 
reduced  almost  to  insignificance. 

For  the  successful  protection  of  a  forest  from  fire 
the-re  are  necessary: 

1.  The  elimination,  so  far  as  possible,  of  the  causes 
of  fires. 

2.  A  proper  organization   of  the    forest,    including 
the  disposal  of  slash,  the  opening  of  roads,  the  construc- 
tion of  trails,  etc. 

3.  An  adequate  supervision. 

4.  Facilities    for   fighting  fires,    including   an  ade- 
quate force  of  men,  proper  implements,  etc. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  24 5 

Elimination  of  the  Causes  of  Fires. — The  causes  of 
fires  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  heads: 

(a)  Sparks  from  locomotives;  (b)  sparks  from  saw- 
mills, donkey  engines,  etc.;  (c)  camp-fires;  (d)  clearing 
land  and  burning  brush;  (e)  burning  to  improve  pastur- 
age; (/)  careless  smokers;  (g)  incendiarism;  (h)  light- 
ning. 

Back  of  any  practical  plan  of  fire  protection  there 
must  be  State  fire  laws  and  a  competent  organization  to 
enforce  them.  In  many  States  to-day  there  are  laws, 
some  of  them  fully  adequate,  requiring  the  use  of  spark- 
arresters  on  engines,  and  punishing  incendiarism,  care- 
lessness in  clearing  land,  and  in  leaving  camp-fires,  etc. 
In  most  States,  on  the  other  hand,  organizations  to  carry 
out  the  laws  and  an  enlightened  sentiment  to  support 
them  are  lacking.  Education  of  the  people  to  the  value 
of  forests  and  the  need  for  their  protection  is  necessary  to 
overcome  the  carelessness  and  ignorance  that  cause  fires 
to  originate  from  camp-fires  and  clearing  land.  Vigor- 
ous application  of  the  laws  will  accomplish  this  result,  but 
the  laws  will  not  be  vigorously  enforced  until  there  is  a 
public  opinion  back  of  them. 

For  the  most  part,  though  probably  not  entirely,  the 
starting  of  fires  by  sparks  from  locomotives  may  be  pre- 
vented by  the  use  of  spark-arresters.  If  the  right  of  way 
is  properly  cleared  and  patroled,  such  occasional  fires 
as  start  may  readily  be  extinguished.  Railroad  fires  are 
therefore  unnecessary.  Railroads  should  be  held  respon- 
sible for  damage  from  fires  which  they  cause. 


246  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

In  the  same  way  there  are  excellent  devices  for  arrest- 
ing the  throw  of  sparks  from  the  stacks  of  donkey  en- 
gines and  sawmills.  When  fires  start  from  these  sources 
it  is  usually  because  such  devices  are  not  used  at  all  or 
not  properly  used. 

There  will,  of  course,  always  be  some  accidental  fires 
and  an  occasional  incendiary  fire,  just  as  in  a  city.  In 
certain  districts  also  lightning  will  continue  to  be  an 
unavoidable  cause  of  fire.  The  management  of  the  for- 
est must,  therefore,  be  so  organized  that  such  fires  as  do 
start  may  be  extinguished  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Organization  of  the  Forest. — By  organization  of  a 
forest  for  protection  is  meant  the  establishment  of  such 
conditions  that  the  chances  of  a  fire  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  that  such  fires  as  are  started  may  be  extin- 
guished with  the  minimum  of  damage.  Among  meas- 
ures variously  used  to  accomplish  this  are: 

1.  The  disposal  of  slash  from  logging  operations. 

2.  The     development    of    roads,    trails,    and    fire- 
lines. 

3.  The  establishment  of  lookout   stations   and  tele- 
phone lines. 

4.  The    organization    of    a    protective    supervisory 
and  fire-fighting  force. 

5.  The  control  of  insects  which  kill  trees  and  cause 
an  accumulation  of  dead,  inflammable  timber. 

No  one  measure  is  sufficient  for  adequate  fire  protec- 
tion. The  disposal  of  dry  tops  and  brush  reduces  the 
danger  from  fire,  but  there  always  remains  enough  in- 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  247 

flammable  material  in  a  forest  to  make  possible  a  damag- 
ing fire.  There  must  also  be  roads,  trails,  or  fire-lines 
giving  ready  access  to  the  forest,  so  that  fires  may  be 
located  and  reached.  Nor  are  these  together  sufficient, 
for  there  must  be  a  constant  watching  for  fires  in  order 
that  they  may  be  discovered  and  attacked  when  they  are 
small  and  easily  controlled,  and  before  they  have  done 
much  injury.  All  the  measures  of  fire  protection  are 
used  together,  and  supplement  each  other. 

Disposal  of  Slash. — The  presence  of  dry  tops  and 
piles  of  brush  in  the  forest  constitutes  the  greatest  menace 
from  fires.  The  severity  of  a  fire,  and  hence  the  damage 
done,  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  dry  debris 
on  the  ground.  Still  more  serious  is  the  fact  that  the 
presence  of  this  material  makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to 
control  and  extinguish  a  fire.  If  there  is  no  material  on 
the  ground  other  than  the  ordinary  leaf  litter,  a  surface 
fire  may  be  easily  extinguished.  Old  logs,  dead  and 
down  trees,  and  snags  lying  about  on  the  ground  are  also 
a  great  hindrance  to  fighting  fires,  for  when  once  ignited 
they  are  apt  to  smolder  for  long  periods,  and  so  continue 
to  threaten  a  further  spread  of  the  flames.  In  many  of 
our  forests  the  dead,  standing  snags  constitute  a  very 
dangerous  feature.  If  these  are  surrounded  by  a  dense 
stand  of  conifers,  they  often  carry  the  flames  up  into  the 
canopy  and  make  a  crown  fire;  if  isolated,  they  may  burn 
for  days,  and  finally  fall,  throwing  sparks  in  all  direc- 
tions. The  forester  aims  to  reduce  the  amount  of  this 
inflammable  debris  in  a  forest  as  rapidly  as  possible,  since 


248  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  249 

the  " clean"  stand  is  easy  to  protect  in  comparison  with 
a  stand  that  is  littered  with  dry  debris. 

Disposal  of  Brush  and  Debris. — A  first  practical  step 
is  to  prevent  a  further  accumulation  of  debris  in  a  forest 
by  disposing  of  the  slash  from  new  cuttings.  The  ap- 
plication in  all  forests  of  a  uniform  method  for  disposing 
of  this  material  would,  however,  be  unwise.  It  should 
be  clearly  understood  that  no  fixed  rule  of  procedure  and 
no  single  method  could  possibly  fit  all  the  different  for- 
est conditions  in  a  country  so  large  as  the  United  States. 
The  method  used  in  any  given  case  must  be  chosen  after 
a  careful  study,  and  must  rest  upon  a  complete  knowl- 
edge of  the  local  conditions.  Many  methods  have  been 
tried  in  the  disposal  of  brush,  but  those  producing  the 
best  results  are  the  following: 

1.  Piling  and  burning  as  logging  proceeds. 

2.  Piling  and  burning  in  separate  operations. 

3.  Lopping  the  tops. 

4.  Lopping  the  tops  and  scattering  the  brush. 

5.  Broadcast  burning. 

Piling  and  Burning  Brush  as  Logging  Proceeds. — 
The  most  economical  method  of  destroying  brush  and 
debris  produced  in  lumbering  is  to  burn  it  as  the  logging 
proceeds.  This  is  possible  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow  or  is  so  damp  that  fire  will  not  spread.  The 
work  is  done  by  the  logging  crew.  As  the  trees  are 
felled,  convenient  locations  for  burning  the  brush  are 
selected,  where  no  damage  will  be  done  to  the  trees  and 
to  young  growth  left  standing,  and  where  the  fires  will 


250  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

least  interfere  with  skidding  the  logs.  Small  fires  are 
started,  and  as  the  branches  are  cut  off  the  trimmers 
throw  them  on  the  nearest  fire.  One  reason  why  this 
method  is  cheaper  than  the  others  is  because  the  branches 
need  not  be  cut  up  so  small,  for  the  fire  is  already  burn- 
ing when  they  are  thrown  on.  In  coniferous  forests 
the  tops  burn  readily,  even  on  the  snow  or  in  stormy 
weather.  Sometimes  when  it  is  not  practicable  to  start  a 
fire  near  a  given  top,  the  trimming  of  the  limbs  is  de- 
ferred until  the  skidders  can  haul  it  bodily  near  a  fire. 
The  branches  are  then  lopped  and  the  last  cut  made, 
enabling  the  skidders  to  go  on  with  the  top  log,  while 
the  choppers  throw  the  brush  on  the  fire. 

If  the  work  is  systematized,  the  brush  is  practically 
all  disposed  of  as  the  logs  are  skidded,  and  the  woods  are 
cleaned  up  as  the  logging  proceeds.  There  is  a  distinct 
advantage  to  the  skidders  through  having  open  ground 
to  work  over.  This  method  should  be  used  only  when 
there  is  no  danger  of  a  spread  of  fire.  Its  use  on  a  large 
scale  is  confined  to  logging  during  the  season  of  snow  or 
rain. 

The  best  method  of  calculating  the  cost  of  brush  dis- 
posal is  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  timber  cut,  meas- 
ured in  board  feet,  log  measure.  A  determination  of 
cost  per  acre  would  be  misleading,  because  of  the  great 
variation  of  yield  in  different  forests. 

The  cost  varies  widely  under  different  conditions. 
If  trees  have  heavy  crowns  and  large,  heavy  limbs,  the 
cost  is  much  greater  than  where  the  crowns  are  smaller. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  251 

Thus,  for  example,  the  cost  of  destroying  the  brush 
produced  in  logging  a  stand  of  large  hemlock  would  be 
greater  per  thousand  feet  of  merchantable  timber  secured 
than  in  logging  an  equal  amount  in  a  small-crowned  spe- 
cies like  red  pine.  If  the  trees  have  a  large  volume,  and 
the  stand  is  heavy,  the  cost  of  disposing  of  their  tops  is 
than  it  would  be  on  an  equal  area  for  a  sparse  stand 
of  trees  that  yielded  only  a  small  amount  of  merchantable 
timber  per  tree. 

The  cost  and  efficiency  of  labor  must,  of  course,  enter 
into  the  cost  of  piling  or  burning  brush,  as  it  does  in  any 
other  logging  operation.  If  the  men  know  just  how  to 
perform  the  work  to  the  best  advantage,  and  are  indus- 
trious and  energetic,  the  cost  of  piling  the  brush  is  much 
less  than  otherwise.  In  many  cases  the  high  cost  of  brush 
disposal  has  been  simply  due  to  the  fact  that  the  men 
who  were  doing  the  work  were  inefficient,  unwilling,  or 
unskilled.  Still  another  factor  influencing  cost  is  the 
ease  of  the  work  as  influenced  by  the  density  and  amount 
of  small  growth  and  the  irregularities  of  the  ground. 

The  Forest  Sen-ice,  working  in  forests  in  the  Lake 
States  composed  of  mixed  red  and  white  pine,  has  dis- 
posed of  brush  in  the  manner  described  at  a  cost  of  12 
cents  per  thousand  board  feet. 

Piling  and  Burning  Brush  in  Separate  Opera- 
tions.— Where  the  logging  is  done  during  the  dry  season, 
the  brush  is  piled  wherever  convenient,  but  the  burning 
of  the  piles  is  deferred  until  a  favorable  time,  such  as 
during  damp  weather  or  after  the  first  snow-fall. 


252  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  best  time  for  piling  brush  is  during  the  cutting 
and  skidding  of  the  timber.  As  the  branches  are  lopped 
from  the  stem  they  are  immediately  cut  up  and  thrown 
on  a  pile.  The  work  is  done  by  the  regular  trimming 
crew,  and,  ordinarily,  the  extra  work  requires  the  ad- 
dition of  only  one  man  to  the  regular  number.  The 
advantages  of  organizing  the  brush-piling  work  in  this 
way  are: 

1.  The  brush    is   cleared  at   once   for  the  skidding 
of  the  logs. 

2.  The  work  is  done  more  cheaply  than  if  the  brush 
is  piled  by  a  separate  crew  after  the  logging   is  com- 
pleted;  besides,  the  trimmers  have  to  throw  aside  the 
brush  in  any  case  to  clear  the  way  for  skidding.     Piling 
after  the  logging  means  a  second  handling  of  the  brush, 
and  is  an  expensive  operation  on  account  of  the  inevitable 
difficulties  of  picking  up  the  branches  from  tangled  piles. 

3.  The  men   work  more   efficiently  and   cheerfully 
when  part  of  a  trimming  crew  than  when  they  do  noth- 
ing but  pile  brush. 

4.  Supervision    is    more    effective    and    less    costly 
when  the  brush  is  piled  with  the  logging  than  when  it  is 
a  separate  later  operation. 

Sometimes,  when  the  logging  is  done  in  the  winter,  it 
is  impracticable  to  burn  brush  at  the  time  of  logging,  in 
the  way  described  in  the  previous  pages,  or  on  account 
of  the  deep  snow,  to  pile  the  brush  for  later  burning. 
In  this  event  the  piling  is  done  in  the  spring,  as  soon 
as  the  snow  permits. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  253 

In  locating  the  piles  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  con- 
sideration the  convenience  and  cheapness  in  handling  the 
brush,  the  clearance  of  way  for  skidding  the  logs,  and 
the  safety  to  standing  trees  and  young  growth  when  the 
piles  are  burned.  Ordinarily  they  are  placed  at  least  15 
feet  away  from  any  trees  or  groups  of  young  trees  that 
may  be  injured.  In  forests  like  spruce,  which  have  a 
great  amount  of  branches,  and  where  the  trees  stand  so 
close  that  the  piles  cannot  be  placed  at  this  safe  distance, 
the  brush  is  either  piled  and  not  burned,  or  is  thorough- 
ly lopped  and  left  scattered  evenly  over  the  ground. 
When  the  brush  is  piled  after  the  logging,  the  piles  are 
located  in  the  logging  roads  and  skidding  trails,  and  on 
spots  where  skidways  were  located. 

The  brush  piles  should  be  small  and  compact. 
(Fig.  51.)  As  a  general  rule,  they  should  not  be  over 
10  feet  across  or  over  6  feet  high.  The  very  small 
branches  are  put  in  the  bottom  of  the  pile,  with  suc- 
cessively larger  material  laid  on  afterward.  The  ends  of 
the  branches  are  placed  toward  the  center  of  the  pile. 
Trimmed  sticks  may  be  leaned  against  the  pile  to  hold 
it  in  shape,  keep  it  from  blowing  over,  and  render  it 
more  compact  for  burning.  Windrows  and  large  piles 
make  control  of  burning  difficult,  and  are  likely  to  make 
such  a  large  fire  that  the  crowns  of  trees  are  scorched  and 
injured. 

When  the  piles  are  loosely  thrown  together  complete 
burning  is  very  difficult  and  often  impossible.  To  secure 
"clean  burning"  (so  called),  it  is  necessary  to  rebuild 


254  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


PROTECTION   OF   FORESTS   FROM    FIRE  25  5 

open  and  loose  piles.  This  is  called  "chunking  up"  the 
piles.  It  is  very  expensive,  for  it  costs  as  much  as  the 
first  piling. 

Brush  should  not  be  thrown  on  a  top,  at  least  until 
all  branches  are  trimmed  off.  Ordinarily,  they  should 
be  piled  away  from  the  top  piece  of  the  stem. 

In  some  instances  in  the  National  Forests  the  practise 
has  been  to  stake  the  piles.  Sticks  are  driven  into  the 
ground  6  or  8  feet  apart,  and  the  limbs  are  ranked  length- 
wise between  them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.  The  advantage 
of  this  method  is  that  it  insures  thoroughness  of  work 
and  a  compact  pile.  It  has  been  proved  that  it  costs 
much  less  to  burn  a  staked  pile  than  the  ordinary  irreg- 
ular pile,  and  the  area  of  ground  burned  over  is  consid- 
erably less.  This  method  has  been  found  of  especial 
value  when  the  brush  piling  has  followed  the  logging. 
The  foreman  of  the  piling  crew  selects  the  locations  for 
the  piles,  drives  the  stakes,  and  supervises  the  work. 
Organized  in  this  way,  the  work  is  done  rapidly,  and 
the  expense  is  but  little  if  any  more  than  if  the  piles 
are  irregular.  Any  extra  expense  of  the  staking  is  more 
than  offset  by  saving  in  the  cost  of  burning. 

The  cost  of  piling  brush  necessarily  varies  under 
different  conditions.  The  first  work  undertaken  in  this 
country  cost  as  high  as  $1  per  thousand  feet,  log  run,  of 
timber  cut.  This  high  cost  was  largely  due  to  lack  of 
knowledge  of  methods  and  to  the  inexperience  of  labor. 
With  better  organization  and  with  trained  workmen  the 
cost  of  piling  brush  in  coniferous  forests  has  been  reduced 


256  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

to  from  10  to  50  cents  per  thousand.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  piling  alone  in  coniferous  forests  should  cost 
more  than  2  5  cents  per  thousand,  except  where  the  tops 
are  unusually  large  and  the  physical  difficulties  unusual. 

BURNING  THE  PILES. — An  excellent  time  for  burning 
brush  piles  is  immediately  after  the  first  snow  of  winter. 
This  is  usually  a  light  fall,  and  the  snow  does  not  pene- 
trate the  compact  piles  of  brush  sufficiently  to  prevent 
burning.  There  is  no  danger  of  the  fire  running  on  the 
ground,  and  the  branches  of  the  standing  trees  are  so 
damp  as  to  prevent  injury  by  the  rising  flames.  If  the 
brush  is  burned  before  winter,  it  should  be  only  during 
damp  weather,  when  the  ground  is  so  wet  that  fire  will 
not  run  easily. 

When  large  areas  of  piled  brush  are  to  be  burned  the 
work  should  be  organized  with  care.  It  should  never  be 
undertaken  when  there  is  a  strong  wind,  and  the  best 
time  is  in  calm  weather.  If  there  is  any  wind,  the  burn- 
ing should  begin  with  the  piles  on  the  lee  side.  Several 
piles  may  be  fired  at  one  time,  but  they  should  be  some 
distance  apart,  with  one  or  more  unburnt  piles  between 
them.  When  the  first  fires  have  burned  down  to  coals, 
the  intermediate  piles  may  be  ignited.  This  alternating 
method  of  burning  the  piles  prevents  the  injury  to  trees 
and  young  growth  between  the  piles  that  might  result 
from  the  collective  volume  of  heat  of  adjacent  fires. 
Just  as  the  brush  on  level  ground  is  burned  against  the 
wind,  so,  on  a  hillside,  the  piles  near  the  top  are  burned 
first,  and  the  work  progresses  down  the  slope. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  257 

Whenever  large  areas  of  piled  brush  are  to  be  burned, 
a  sufficient  force  of  men,  equipped  with  fire-fighting  im- 
plements, should  always  be  present  to  insure  that  the  fire 
will  not  get  beyond  control.  In  some  instances,  when 
brush  is  piled  in  the  winter  during  logging  and  left  for 
later  burning,  the  piles  become  very  wet  from  the  snow 
and  rain  and  do  not  dry  out  till  late  spring  or  summer,  a 
time  when  burning  on  a  large  scale  is  dangerous.  If  the 
brush  of  winter  lumbering  cannot  be  burned  as  the  log- 
ging proceeds,  the  piles  must  ordinarily  remain  unburned 
till  the  first  snow  of  the  following  winter,  or  till  especially 
wet  weather  comes  in  late  summer  or  fall. 

The  devices  used  in  different  localities  for  starting 
fires  in  piled  brush  are  many.  Some  loggers  use  a  torch 
of  burning  wood,  as  resinous  pine;  others  earn7  live  coals 
from  one  pile  to  another;  others  use  a  long-handled 
torch;  others,  again,  pour  a  little  oil  on  the  brush  and 
fire  it  with  a  match.  The  most  satisfactory  seems  to  be 
an  ordinary  tubular  torch  with  wicking  and  a  ferrule  into 
which  a  rake-handle  can  be  inserted.  A  good  substitute, 
though  a  crude  one,  for  the  last  is  a  piece  of  bagging  or 
burlap  wound  around  an  iron  rod  or  stick  of  wood  and 
occasionally  saturated  with  oil. 

The  cost  of  burning  piled  brush  in  the  coniferous 
forests  may  vary  from  1  to  30  cents  per  thousand,  accord- 
ing to  the  manner  in  which  the  brush  is  piled,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  brush,  the  size  of  the  crew  needed  to  prevent 
the  running  of  fire,  etc.  Commonly,  it  ranges  from  5  to 
15  cents  per  thousand  feet.  Where  the  cost  has  been 


258  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

higher  than  this,  it  has  been  attributable  either  to  poor 
work  in  piling  or  to  inefficient  management  in  the  work 
of  burning.  The  average  cost  of  both  piling  and  burn- 
ing should  range  in  coniferous  forests  between  10  and  50 
cents,  and  as  the  lumbermen  become  more  experienced 
in  performing  the  work,  the  cost  will  be  correspondingly 
reduced. 

In  a  Montana  logging  operation  shown  in  Fig.  52, 
where  the  brush  was  burned  just  after  a  slight  snowfall 
under  particularly  favorable  conditions,  the  actual  cost  of 
burning  was  only  a  fraction  of  1  cent  per  thousand  feet. 
No  watching  of  the  piles  to  see  that  fire  did  not  run 
was  necessary;  it  was  simply  a  case  of  walking  from  one 
pile  to  another  and  starting  the  fire. 

In  some  coniferous  forests  careful  records  were  kept 
at  the  area  actually  burned  over.  Where  the  stands  per 
acre  ran  from  10,000  to  50,000  feet  per  acre,  the  aggre- 
gate area  burned  over  by  the  brush  fires  was  found  to  be 
approximately  7  per  cent,  of  the  toual  area  cut  over  in  the 
logging  operations.  Where  the  brush  is  burned  as  the 
logging  proceeds,  the  percentage  of  the  area  burned  over 
is  less. 

DISPOSAL  OF  HARDWOOD  BRUSH. — Most  of  the  work 
of  piling  and  burning  brush  has  been  in  coniferous  for- 
ests. Of  late,  however,  there  has  been  considerable  dis- 
cussion of  burning  the  slash  after  logging  in  hardwood 
forests.  So  far  as  the  author  is  informed,  systematic 
brush  burning  after  hardwood  logging  has  not  been  con- 
ducted anywhere  on  a  large  scale  or  in  a  manner  to  justify 


PROTECTION    OF   FORESTS   FROM    FIRE 


259 


260  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

a  judgment  as  to  its  practicability.  Hardwood  tops  are 
necessarily  large,  heavy,  and  awkward  to  handle.  The 
cost  would  be  much  greater  than  in  coniferous  forests, 
It  is  probable  that  lopping  and  scattering  will  be  used 
rather  than  piling  and  burning. 

The  author  has  conducted  some  experiments  in  the 
burning  of  hardwood  brush  in  the  second-growth  forests 
of  New  England,  where  the  wood  was  utilized  to  about 
3  or  4  inches,  so  that  the  amount  of  brush  to  be  disposed 
of  was  much  less  than  would  have  remained  from  logging 
old  timber  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  showed  the  average  cost  of  piling  and  burn- 
ing to  be  between  10  and  25  cents  per  cord.  In  this 
class  of  material  with  good  organization  the  cost  would 
probably  not  exceed  10  to  15  cents  per  cord,  though 
these  figures  furnish  but  scant  basis  upon  which  to  make 
calculation  of  the  cost  of  piling  and  burning  the  brush 
and  debris  from  an  ordinary  hardwood  logging  opera- 
tion, where  the  size  and  number  of  the  limbs  would  be 
very  much  greater. 

Lopping  the  Tops. — In  some  forests  the  burning  of 
the  brush  may  be  unnecessary  or  actually  undesirable. 
A  method  of  brush  disposal  applicable  in  many  forests  is 
to  lop  off  the  branches  from  the  tops  and  leave  the  mate- 
rial on  the  ground.  The  purpose  is  to  bring  all  the 
brush  in  close  contact  with  the  ground,  so  that  it  will 
absorb  moisture  more  readily,  dry  out  less  in  summer, 
and  decay  more  rapidly  than  when  propped  high  above 
the  ground. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  261 

So  far  as  the  author  is  informed  this  method  was  first 
used  on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
in  lumbering  spruce  and  pine.  At  first  the  plan  was  to 
cut  off  only  the  upper  branches  of  the  top  as  it  lay  on 
the  ground.  This  left  the  stem  still  propped  above  the 
ground,  as  shown  in  Fig.  53.  The  next  step  was  to  cut 
off  the  under  branches  and  lower  the  whole  mass  to  the 
ground.  The  heavy  snows  during  the  first  winter  after 
cutting  flattened  down  the  top  and  the  branches.  (Fig. 
54.)  In  this  condition  the  brush  absorbs  moisture  so 
rapidly  that  after  three  years  there  is  little  risk  of  fire. 

This  method  was  first  used  in  private  shooting  pre- 
serves, mainly  to  prevent  the  tops  from  obstructing  the 
hunter's  view.  It  also  enables  a  freer  movement  over 
the  ground  and  facilitates  the  fighting  of  fires. 

A  later  development  of  the  method  is  to  cut  up  and 
scatter  the  branches  about  over  the  ground.  This  has 
been  used  in  the  cuttings  on  second-growth  woodlands 
when  the  amount  of  material  left  after  cutting  the  cord- 
wood  in  the  tops  was  small.  It  has  also  been  extensively 
used  in  certain  National  Forests  in  the  dry  districts  of 
the  West,  where  the  scattered  branches  serve  as  protection 
to  the  soil  and  aid  reproduction. 

The  cost  of  lopping  the  tops  of  spruce  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks  was  12  cents  per  thousand  feet  of  lumber  cut. 

Lopping  is  the  most  advisable  method  of  brush  dis- 
posal under  the  following  conditions: 

1.  \Vhere  there  is  very  little  danger  of  fires  start- 
ing. 


262  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

2.  Where  the  region  is  moist  and  the  branches  will 
absorb  moisture  quickly. 

3.  Where   the   forest   is    so    dense   that   piling   and 
burning  is  impracticable. 

4.  Where    the    conditions   of    logging   and   of    the 
market  are  Such  that  the  greater  part  of  the  tree  is  util- 
ized and  but  little  crown  is  left,  while  what  is  left  will 
not  be  especially  dangerous  if  thoroughly  lopped  and 
scattered. 

5.  Where  the  scattering  of  the  branches  is  necessary 
or  desirable  to  protect  the  soil  and  small  seedlings  from 
drought  or  frost. 

Broadcast  Burning. — For  a  number  of  years  it  has 
been  the  custom  of  certain  lumbermen  to  burn  their 
slashings,  in  order  to  protect  valuable  standing  timber 
on  neighboring  areas.  There  is  usually  no  attempt  to 
regulate  the  fire  within  the  area  burned,  and  all  living 
trees  and  young  growth  upon  it  are  destroyed  along  with 
the  brush  and  debris.  From  the  standpoint  of  forest 
production  such  fires  are  very  destructive. 

The  principle  of  broadcast  burning  may,  however,  be 
used  to  advantage  in  making  clear-cuttings,  provided 
the  fire  can  be  confined  to  small  areas  and  fully  controlled. 
Thus,  in  making  clearings  in  patches  and  strips  in  cer- 
tain of  the  National  Forests,  the  slashings  are  burned  on 
the  ground  without  piling.  This  method  is  now  under 
trial  in  some  of  the  clear-cuttings  in  the  northwestern 
National  Forests,  where,  in  addition  to  the  slash  from 
the  cuttings,  there  is  a  great  accumulation  of  debris  and 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  263 


FIG.  53.  —A  Spruce  Top  Improperly  Lopped. 


• 


FIG.   54. — The  Same  Spruce  Top  Properly  Lopped. 


264          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

the  litter  and  humus  is  very  heavy.  In  some  instances 
this  debris  and  litter  is  a  hindrance  to  reproduction,  as 
well  as  an  invitation  to  fire,  and  its  destruction  is  bene- 
ficial. The  heavy  loss  of  humus  which  must  accompany 
so  hot  a  fire  may  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
improved  conditions  for  reproduction  of  the  species 
desired.  The  expense  of  piling  all  the  slash  and  debris 
in  the  ordinary  manner  would,  under  these  conditions, 
be  very  large,  probably  not  less  than  from  $1  to  $2  per 
thousand  feet  of  timber  cut. 

In  order  to  control  the  fire  in  burning  over  the 
ground  broadcast,  ample  fire-lines  should  be  constructed 
around  the  outside  of  the  areas  to  be  burned.  These 
should  usually  be  not  less  than  1  rod  wide,  and  should 
be  entirely  cleared  of  inflammable  material.  The  mate- 
rial in  the  lines  may  often  be  thrown  on  the  side  of  the 
cut-over  area  and  burned  with  the  other  debris,  but  if 
this  would  make  a  dangerously  large  pile  near  the  line, 
it  is  better  to  burn  it  in  piles  on  the  cleared  space. 

The  burning  should  be  done  with  great  caution.  A 
time  should  be  selected  when  the  slash  is  dry  enough  to 
burn  well,  but  not  so  dry  that  it  will  be  impossible  to 
confine  the  fire  within  the  fire-lines.  The  best  time  is 
usually  when  the  slash  in  the  open,  cut-over  area  has  just 
dried  out  sufficiently  to  burn,  and  while  the  contiguous 
forest  is  still  too  damp  to  burn  freely.  In  the  case  of 
wide,  cleared  strips  it  may  be  advisable  to  construct  a  fire- 
line  through  the  middle,  as  well  as  along  the  edges. 
V^ery  often  the  logging  trails  can  be  used  for  intermediate 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  265 

fire-lines  for  the  control  of  the  burning,  and  in  this 
way  the  expense  of  making  special  lines  may  be  partly 
saved. 

In  the  work  of  burning  it  is  usually  advisable  to  have 
a  crew  of  at  least  10  men,  properly  equipped  with  fire- 
fighting  implements,  in  order  to  control  the  fire.  So  far 
as  possible  only  small  portions  of  the  area  should  be 
under  fire  at  one  time,  especially  when  there  is  any  possi- 
ble danger  of  the  fire  spreading  to  the  adjoining  woods. 

There  is  no  question  that  this  method  is  much  more 
dangerous  than  burning  brush  in  piles,  and  for  this 
reason  the  latter  method  should  be  used  whenever  pos- 
sible. A  great  objection  to  broadcast  burning  is  that 
any  remaining  trees,  reproduction,  or  young  growth,  al- 
ready started  on  the  cut-over  area,  are  almost  inevitably 
destroyed. 

Annual  or  Periodic  Burning  of  Litter. — In  many 
places,  notably  in  the  pine  districts  of  the  South,  it  has 
been  the  custom  to  let  surface  fires  run  through  the  woods 
every  year,  usually  in  order  to  improve  the  range.  This 
is  defended  on  the  theory  that  if  the  litter  is  allowed  to 
accumulate  for  a  number  of  years,  a  fire  would  be  so 
severe  as  to  kill  all  the  timber,  whereas  an  annual  fire 
burns  only  the  year's  fall  of  leaves  or  needles,  and  does 
little  damage  to  the  standing  trees.  Where  the  trees  are 
tapped  for  turpentine  the  litter  is  raked  away  from  the 
boxed  trees,  so  that  the  fire  will  not  reach  them. 

There  is  no  question  that  in  the  unprotected  yellow- 
pine  forests  this  custom  has  resulted  in  saving  a  large 


266          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

amount  of  old  timber,  but  it  has  also  retarded  the  repro- 
duction of  the  forest  by  killing  off  young  growth  and 
seedlings  in  their  tender  stage.  Deliberate  burning  of 
the  litter  as  a  protective  measure  is  justified  only  under 
special  conditions  and  only  on  selected  areas.  The  con- 
siderations bearing  on  the  use  of  fire  in  this  way  are: 

1.  It  should  never  be  used  except  where  absolute 
fire  prevention  cannot  be  assured,  and  there  is  real  danger 
resulting  from  heavy  leaf  litter. 

2.  It  should  be  used  only  in  stands  in  which  there 
is  no  reproduction  that  it  is  desired  to  conserve. 

3.  It  should  be  used  only  where  the  benefit  in  fire 
protection  more  than  offsets  the  injury  to  the  soil,  result- 
ing from  repeated  burning. 

4.  It  should   be  used   only   with  very  fire-resistant 
species. 

5.  It  should  be  used  only   when  the  trees   are   old 
and   large  enough   to   have   developed   the   corky  bark 
necessary  for  resistance  to  the  heat  of  the  fires. 

6.  It  should  be  used  only  when  the  fire  can  be  con- 
trolled. 

The  burning  is  done  best  in  early  spring,  when  the 
loose  litter  is  dry  but  the  ground  below  is  damp,  the 
purpose  being  to  burn  only  the  upper  litter. 

In  many  places  it  is  very  difficult  to  control  the  burn- 
ing without  the  use  of  fire-lines.  A  tract  divided  by 
roads  and  paths  into  small  blocks  presents  a  simple  prob- 
lem, for  each  block  may  be  burned  separately,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  development  of  a  fire  too  large  to 


PROTECTION   OF   FORESTS   FROM    FIRE  267 

control.  On  large  tracts  without  roads,  ground-cleared 
fire- lines  may  be  used  to  protect  areas  of  young  growth, 
or  these  may  be  developed  at  certain  points  to  aid  in  the 
control  of  broadcast  burning. 

Annual  burning  for  fire  protection  is  never  justified 
where  it  cannot  be  systematically  controlled.  The  prac- 
tise in  many  parts  of  the  South  and  West,  of  setting  out 
fires  to  burn  off  the  litter  and  brush — usually  for  the  sake 
of  a  better  range — cannot  be  justified,  for  the  fires  are 
uncontrolled,  and  they  destroy  an  immense  amount  of 
young  growth  and  otherwise  damage  the  forest.  Merely 
setting  fire  to  the  woods  without  control  is  nothing  less 
than  forest  destruction. 

Fire-Lines. — Broadly  speaking,  a  fire-line  is  a  cleared 
strip  in  the  forest  used  as  an  aid  in  the  protection  from 
fire.  It  may  be  a  road,  a  trail,  a  river  or  stream,  a  line 
cleared  especially  for  a  fire-break,  or  a  plowed  furrow. 
The  purpose  of  fire-lines  is  to  check  or  stop  fires,  and  to 
facilitate  fighting  them.  A  small  surface  fire  may  be 
stopped  entirely  by  a  road  or  even  a  path.  Some  surface 
fires  are  easily  checked  in  their  progress  by  narrow  fire- 
lines;  others  can  be  stopped  only  by  very  wide  lines. 
Crown  fires  and  surface  fires  of  unusual  severity  will 
readily  leap  across  even  very  wide  fire-lines.  Fire-lines, 
therefore,  should  not  be  built  with  the  idea  that  they  will 
always  stop  fires.  They  are  intended  to  serve  primarily 
as  an  aid,  and  often  are  an  indispensable  aid,  in  control- 
ling fires  and  preventing  their  spread.  Even  when  they 
do  not  actually  stop  or  check  a  fire  they  serve  as  vantage 


268          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

points  from  which  the  fighting  crew  may  work.  Their 
establishment  usually  makes  the  woods  accessible,  so  that 
a  crew  can  get  to  a  fire  or  near  it  quickly  with  appliances 
for  fighting  it.  If  back  firing  is  necessary,  it  can  often 
be  done  best  from  the  fire-line. 

Fire-lines  differ  very  greatly  in  construction  and 
width,  according  to  local  conditions  of  fire  danger  and 
of  special  forest  organization.  They  will  be  discussed 
under  the  following  heads:  (1)  Roads;  (2)  trails;  (3) 
special  fire-lines. 

Roads. — An  ordinary  dirt  road  ranks  as  one  of  the 
best  of  all  fire-lines.  The  wider  the  road  the  more 
effective  it  is.  A  forest  well  cut  up  with  roads  is,  there- 
fore, much  more  easily  protected  than  one  with  few  or  no 
roads.  In  Europe,  every  well-organized  forest  has  a 
thoroughly  planned  network  of  roads.  These  are  located 
primarily  with  reference  to  the  problem  of  logging,  but 
they  serve  also  as  a  network  of  fire-lines,  and  special  lines 
are  cleared  to  supplement  them  where  necessary.  Every 
part  of  the  forest  is  readily  accessible,  not  only  for  patrol- 
ing  for  fire  during  the  danger  season,  but  for  the  quick 
transportation  of  fire-fighting  appliances.  In  case  a  fire 
should  start  in  such  a  forest  and  be  discovered  within  a 
reasonable  time,  it  would  be  easy  to  confine  it  to  a  small 
area. 

We  cannot  expect  to  have  such  a  well-organized  sys- 
tem of  roads  and  fire-lines  in  our  forests  for  a  long  time, 
but  much  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  utilizing  the  more 
or  less  temporary  roads  that  are  used  in  logging  and 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE 


269 


270  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

afterward  abandoned.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the 
second-growth  woodlots. 

In  most  woodlots  there  are  a  great  number  of  old 
wood  roads,  often  badly  overgrown  with  weeds,  brush, 
or  trees.  If  these  are  kept  clear  they  are  of  great  value 
in  fire  protection.  They  make  the  different  parts  of  the 
woods  accessible  and  offer  points  from  which  the  fighting 
crews  may  work.  The  author  has  in  mind  a  tract  in 
Pennsylvania  which  was  burned  over  in  1909  with  great 
loss,  but  which  might  easily  have  been  saved  had  the  old 
roads  been  clear. 

It  is  usually  impracticable,  on  account  of  the  expense 
entailed,  to  keep  all  the  roads  free  of  leaves,  grass,  etc., 
but  they  may  be  kept  brushed  out  with  very  little  cost. 
The  author  recently  had  some  work  of  this  sort  done  on 
a  Pennsylvania  tract,  eight  years  after  abandonment  of 
the  road,  for  less  than  $3  per  mile.  It  may  not  always 
pay  to  repair  bridges  and  restore  badly  washed  roads,  but 
in  almost  every  second-growth  woodlot  most  of  the  over- 
grown roads  may  be  reestablished  sufficiently  for  fire-lines 
with  very  little  cost. 

Trails. — The  first  object  of  trails  is  to  open  up  a  for- 
est and  make  it  accessible  for  patrol  and  for  fighting 
fires.  In  the  National  Forests,  this  work  of  trail  con- 
struction constitutes  the  first  step  in  organizing  for  fire 
protection.  In  undeveloped  mountain  regions  it  is  im- 
possible without  good  trails  to  get  to  a  fire  in  a  reasonable 
time  and  with  means  for  fighting  it.  The  trails  in  the 
National  Forests  are  permanently  constructed,  and  are 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  271 

designed  for  saddle  and  pack-horse  travel.  (Fig.  59.) 
While  their  first  purpose  is  to  facilitate  patrol  and  access 
to  a  fire,  they  may  be  used  as  starting-points  for  back- 
firing, and  will  often  check  or  actually  stop  a  small 
surface  fire. 

Special  Fire-Lines. — When  there  are  no  roads  or 
trails  which  will  answer  the  purpose,  it  may  be  advisa- 
ble to  construct  special  fire-lines.  Special  fire-lines  are 
necessarily  expensive,  and  are  used  where  the  property 
to  be  protected  is  very  valuable.  They  are  most  used 
in  woodlands  in  the  better  settled  portions  of  the  country, 
where  land  values  are  relatively  high.  In  many  cases  it 
is  advisable  in  a  valuable  woodlot  to  construct  here  and 
there  a  special  fire-line  at  points  where  it  is  not  worth 
while  or  practicable  to  build  a  road  or  trail.  Thus, 
special  lines  are  frequently  run  along  the  boundaries  or  at 
strategic  points  connecting  roads.  It  is  a  sound  princi- 
ple, however,  that  special  fire-lines  should  never  be  built 
where  a  road  or  trail  can  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  the  less  intensive  forest  conditions,  such  as  occur 
in  the  lumber  woods,  special  fire-lines  have  so  far  been 
constructed  only  under  exceptional  conditions.  In  a 
large  forest,  the  first  work  is  to  open  up  the  area  for  com- 
munication by  the  construction  of  trails,  and,  where 
possible,  of  roads.  Like  all  other  work  in  forestry  in- 
volving an  investment,  the  use  of  fire-lines  must  be  based 
on  sound  business  principles.  They  should  be  used 
only  where  necessary,  and  where  their  expense  is  justified 
by  the  returns. 


272  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

Special  fire-lines  may  be  classed  under  the  following 
heads:  (a)  Fully  cleared  lines;  (b)  tree-cleared  lines;  (c) 
ground-cleared  lines. 

Fully  Cleared  Lines. — The  ideal  fire-line  is  a  com- 
pletely cleared  strip,  from  which  are  removed  not  only 
the  trees  and  brush,  but  also  all  ground  debris  down  to 
the  mineral  soil. 

Fully  cleared  lines  are  advisable  when  the  risk  of  fire 
is  very  great  and  adequate  protection  can  be  secured  only 
by  having  a  clear  break,  which  will  either  stop  or  check 
possible  fires.  Such  lines  are  necessarily  expensive  to 
construct  and  maintain.  They  are,  therefore,  used  only 
when  the  property  is  valuable  and  the  damage  from  a  fire 
would  be  very  great,  as,  for  example,  to  protect  nurseries, 
plantations,  or  valuable  blocks  of  timber. 

They  are  especially  necessary  wherever  fire  will  run 
swiftly  and  it  may  not  be  possible  to  reach  the  fire 
promptly  with  fighting  appliances.  A  conspicuous 
example  of  the  necessity  of  such  fire-lines  and  of  the 
service  rendered  by  them  is  found  in  the  chaparral 
forests  of  the  mountains  in  southern  California.  (Fig. 
58.)  The  preservation  of  the  chaparral  cover  is  of 
great  importance  in  protecting  the  local  watersheds. 
The  area  is  large,  the  mountains  are  rough  and  difficult 
to  travel,  and  fire  runs  with  great  rapidity.  Fire-lines 
are  very  necessary  in  such  localities  to  control  any  fires 
that  may  start,  and  they  must  be  of  a  character  to  stop 
fires,  or  to  check  them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  can  be 
controlled.  The  Government  is,  therefore,  building 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  273 

extensive  trails  for  patrol  to  prevent  fires,  and  supple- 
menting them  by  wide,  cleared  fire-lines  to  stop  any  fires 
that  may  start. 

Cleared  fire-lines  are  also  used  in  extensive  pine  for- 
ests on  dry,  sandy  land.  Fires  start  easily  and  run 
swiftly  under  such  conditions,  and  fire-lines  are  easy  to 
construct  and  comparatively  cheap  to  maintain.  Thus, 
in  the  pine  forests  of  northern  Germany  and  southern 
France,  wide  cleared  lines  are  used  to  supplement  the 
road  systems. 

The  danger  from  fire  is  always  very  great  in  the  re- 
gions of  the  Tropics  that  have  a  pronounced  dry  season. 
In  India,  for  example,  fire  protection  constitutes  one  of 
the  greatest  problems  of  management.  The  forest  be- 
comes very  dry  in  the  hot  season,  and  there  is  a  great 
abundance  of  grass,  which  ignites  readily  and  carries  fire 
swiftly.  Under  these  conditions  cleared  fire-lines  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  efficient  protection. 

The  width  of  fire-lines  varies  greatly  under  different 
conditions.  In  general,  the  following  classes  from  the 
standpoint  of  width  may  be  recognized:  Normal,  from  6 
to  15  feet;  wide,  from  15  to  30  feet;  very  wide,  from  30 
to  60  feet.  In  Europe  fire-lines  are  usually  about  10  to 
1 5  feet  wide,  but  in  the  pine  plains  they  are  often  as 
wide  as  50  feet. 

In  this  country  such  fire-lines  as  have  been  con- 
structed are  usually  less  than  1  rod  in  width.  In  the 
chaparral  of  California,  however,  broad  lines,  from  40  to 
60  feet  wide,  have  given  the  best  results  in  stopping  fires. 


274  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


FIG.   56.— A  Plowed  Furrow  that  Stopped  a  Surface  Fire. 


FIG.   57.— A  Fully  Cleared  Fire-Line  in  the  San  Gabriel 
Mountains,   California. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  275 

It  is  seldom  necessary  or  practicable  to  make  fire-lines 
over  60  feet  wide.  Usually  it  is  more  economical  to 
make  a  number  of  narrow  lines  rather  than  a  few  very 
broad  ones. 

In  constructing  a  fully  cleared  fire-line  the  timber  and 
brush  should  all  be  removed  or  disposed  of  to  the  de- 
sired width.  Where  it  is  impossible  to  utilize  the  tim- 
ber, the  logs  may  be  left  along  the  side  of  the  lines. 
The  brush  and  other  debris  should  be  burned.  Piling 
the  brush  along  the  edge  of  the  line  is  a  dangerous  prac- 
tise. As  a  rule,  the  best  plan  is  to  burn  the  brush  in 
piles  in  the  cleared  area,  and  then  burn  the  ground  litter 
by  a  broadcast  fire. 

In  the  best  permanent  lines  the  stumps  are  all  grubbed 
out  and  the  soil  is  occasionally  stirred  by  grubbing  or 
harrowing.  Sometimes  only  a  part  of  the  line  is  cleared 
to  the  soil.  Thus,  for  example,  the  timber  and  brush 
may  be  cleared  from  a  strip  from  10  to  IS  feet  wide,  and 
a  narrow  strip  or  trace  about  4  feet  wide  ground-cleared. 
This  cleared  trace  may  be  located  in  the  middle  of  the 
line,  or  on  one  side.  A  good  plan  is  to  make  two  traces, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  fire-line.  The  advantage  of  the 
last  plan  is  that  it  affords  a  very  good  protection  when 
burning  the  debris  on  the  line. 

The  method  of  constructing  a  narrow,  ground-cleared 
trace,  covering  only  a  part  of  the  fire-line,  is  very  com- 
monly used  where  there  is  a  deep  duff  on  the  ground. 
It  is  then  a  question  of  protection  against  ground  fires. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  trace  amounts  to  a  trench. 


276  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING  WOODLANDS 

In  the  north  woods  the  duff  is  frequently  2  feet  deep. 
A  narrow  trench,  from  1  to  3  feet  wide  to  the  mineral 
soil,  suffices  to  stop  or  check  a  ground  fire.  The  trees 
and  brush  are  cleared  for  a  width  of  6  to  15  feet,  to  facili- 
tate work  in  fighting  fire  and  in  constructing  and  main- 
taining the  trench. 

Fully  cleared  fire-lines  should  be  cleaned  off  every 
year  or  two.  The  leaves  and  other  debris  accumulating 
upon  them  should  be  removed  by  burning  or  otherwise, 
and  in  the  case  of  grubbed  lines  the  soil  should  be  stirred 
over  by  raking  or  harrowing. 

The  work  of  burning  over  the  fire-line  can  best  be 
done  in  early  spring.  The  leaves  and  other  debris  will 
become  dry  on  the  open  fire-line  sooner  than  in  the 
adjoining  forest  or  chaparral.  The  aim  should  be  to  do 
the  burning  at  exactly  the  time  when  there  will  be  the 
least  danger  of  the  fire  spreading  to  the  woods.  It  is, 
however,  not  always  possible  to  organize  the  crew  so  as 
to  have  the  work  done  at  the  most  favorable  period.  In 
the  case  of  an  extensive  tract  the  work  may  be  begun 
exactly  on  time,  but  the  whole  woods  may  become  dan- 
gerously dry  before  it  can  be  finished.  It  is  especially 
difficult  to  carry  out  this  work  of  burning  over  the  fire- 
line  in  open  pine  woods  on  dry,  sandy  soil. 

When  the  burning  has  to  be  deferred  until  the  woods 
as  well  as  the  fire- line  are  dry,  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  the  work.  If  the  ground  cover  consists  of  leaves 
or  needles,  the  procedure  is  as  follows: 

Narrow,  cleared  traces  are  made  on  each  side  of  the 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  277 

fire-line  proper,  by  raking  or  brushing  aside  the  leaves,  or 
needles,  and  debris.  Sometimes,  in  flat,  level  areas  it  is 
possible  to  make  the  trace  by  plowing  one  or  two  fur- 
rows. Usually  these  traces  need  be  no  more  than  a  foot 
wide.  A  fire  is  set  along  the  side  of  the  fire-line.  One 
or  more  men  follow  this  up,  constantly  brushing  the 
burning  or  smoldering  embers  toward  the  center  of  the 
fire-line,  the  idea  being  to  keep  the  fires  confined  between 
the  traces.  Other  men  follow  behind  and  watch  the 
burning  area  to  prevent  a  possible  spread  of  fire.  If  there 
is  a  strong  wind,  no  burning  should  be  done.  If  there  is 
a  slight  wind  across  the  line,  one  trace  may  suffice  on  the 
lee  side,  and  the  burning  should  proceed  against  the 
wind.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  a  crew  of  from 
four  to  six  men  suffices  for  burning  over  fire-lines,  but 
if  the  weather  is  very  dry  a  much  larger  crew  may  be 
required. 

In  very  dry  weather  the  burning  is  best  done  early  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  late  afternoon  and  evening.  The 
air  is  moister,  and  there  is  usually  less  wind  at  those 
times. 

In  California,  several  interesting  experiments  in  keep- 
ing down  the  brush  on  the  broad  lines  are  being  tried. 
One  is  to  pasture  on  the  line  a  flock  of  goats  which  eat 
down  the  new  weeds  and  sprouts,  and  trample  the  ground. 
Another  experiment  is  to  establish  on  the  line  a  dense 
growth  of  succulent,  herbaceous  plants  which  would  keep 
out  ordinary  weeds  and  obviate  annual  or  periodic  grub- 
bing. 


278  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  cost  of  constructing  fully  cleared  fire-lines  varies 
enormously,  just  as  does  the  construction  of  a  road  or 
trail.  The  cost  of  clearing  the  line  depends  on  the  width, 
character,  and  quantity  of  timber  and  brush  to  be  cut,  the 
quantity  of  tops  to  be  disposed  of,  and  the  character  and 
quantity  of  ground  debris,  as  well  as  on  the  labor,  the 
difficulties  of  work,  the  efficiency  of  organization,  etc. 
If  the  ground  is  grubbed,  the  cost  is  affected  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done,  the  difficulties  of  working  the 
ground,  and  the  topography.  In  general,  the  first  con- 
struction of  an  8-foot  fully  cleared  line  costs  anywhere 
from  $10  to  $100  per  mile.  An  average  for  a  second- 
growth  woodlot  would  be  from  $30  to  $50.  If  there  is 
a  good  market  for  cord  wood  and  other  material,  the  tim- 
ber might  return  50  or  60  per  cent,  of  the  whole  cost. 
The  wide  fire-lines  in  southern  California  cost  from  $100 
to  $200  per  mile.  They  are  now  cleared  every  two  years 
at  a  cost  of  from  $30  to  $75  per  mile.  The  cost  of 
maintenance  will  be  progressively  smaller  from  year  to 
year. 

Tree-Cleared  Lines. — By  a  tree-cleared  line  is  meant 
one  from  which  the  trees  and  brush  are  removed,  but 
from  which  no  effort  is  made  to  clear  the  leaves  or 
other  small  litter.  The  object  of  such  lines  is  not  to 
stop  a  fire,  but  to  furnish  a  vantage  ground  for  patrol 
and  for  fighting  fires.  The  brushing  out  of  all  wood 
roads,  already  mentioned  on  page  270,  makes  the  best 
kind  of  tree-cleared  lines. 

Very  frequently  special  tree-cleared   lines   are  made 


PROTECTION    OF    IORESTS   FROM    FIRE 


FIG.    58. -A  Fire-Line  in  the  Chaparral.     Angeles  National 
Forest,  California. 


280  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

where  there  are  no  roads  or  trails,  as,  for  example, 
along  the  boundary  of  a  tract,  about  a  recent  clearing, 
around  a  body  of  young  timber,  etc.  In  Europe, 
such  lines  are  often  made  between  two  compartments 
where  there  is  no  road  or  other  permanent  boundary. 

The  width  of  tree-cleared  lines  is  usually  from  6  to 
1 5  feet.  The  European  tree-cleared  lines  between  com- 
partments are  usually  about  6  or  8  feet.  Often  a  line 
from  10  to  15  feet  is  cut,  especially  where  a  road  may 
later  be  located.  In  a  number  of  instances  in  this  coun- 
try very  wide  lines  have  been  cut,  75  or  100  feet  in 
width.  Such  great  width  is  ordinarily  unnecessary. 
Strips  a  rod  wide  are  usually  of  fully  as  great  value  as 
the  very  wide  lines,  except  in  conifers,  where  there  is 
danger  of  crown  fires.  The  maintenance  of  these  lines 
consists  in  brushing  them  out  every  year  or  two. 

Ground-Cleared  Lines. — By  ground-cleared  lines  are 
meant  strips  on  which  the  small  brush  and  ground 
debris  are  destroyed,  and  the  larger  trees  are  left  stand- 
ing. Ground-cleared  lines  may  be  made  in  open  woods, 
where  there  is  little  or  no  undergrowth  to  be  injured  or 
to  interfere  with  the  work  of  clearing  the  ground.  The 
usual  procedure  is  to  burn  a  strip  through  the  woods 
from  10  to  20  feet  wide.  This  can  be  done  only  where 
the  conditions  are  such  that  a  surface  fire  may  be  con- 
trolled and  restricted  to  the  desired  strip. 

The  open  pine  woods  of  the  South  present  an  ideal 
condition  for  the  use  of  ground-cleared  lines.  In  burn- 
ing the  lines,  practically  the  same  methods  as  those 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  281 

described  on  page  276  for  burning  over  regular  fire-lines 
should  be  used. 

Location  of  Fire-Lines. — The  existing  roads  usu- 
ally constitute  the  base  or  framework  of  a  system  of  fire- 
lines.  Ordinary  roads,  old  wood  roads,  skidding  trails, 
and  other  open  strips  are  used  first,  and  special  lines  are 
constructed  only  when  necessary.  Special  lines  should 
always  be  located  at  the  strategic  points. 

In  any  given  forest  the  boundaries  should  first  be  pro- 
tected. There  must  be  protection  from  fires  that  may 
start  on  a  neighboring  tract.  Often  roads  running  along 
or  near  the  boundary  will  give  adequate  protection.  If 
not,  and  there  is  danger  of  fire  entering  from  the  outside, 
a  fire-line  is  desirable,  even  if  it  is  only  a  tree-cleared 
strip. 

Fire-lines  are  often  constructed  around  recent  cut- 
tings, where  there  is  young  growth  established  or  on 
areas  where  there  is  still  considerable  slash. 

One  of  the  places  where  fire-lines  are  most  needed  is 
along  railroads.  It  is  the  custom  of  certain  railroads  to 
keep  their  rights  of  way  clear,  usually  by  annual  burn- 
ing. In  some  States  this  is  required  by  law.  In  spite 
of  this  precaution,  innumerable  fires  are  set  on  the  right 
of  way,  and  very  commonly  by  sparks  thrown  into  the 
woods  beyond. 

Many  special  fire-lines  have  been  tried.     In  general, » 
these  are  based  on  the  principle  that  the  right  of  way 
should  be  cleared,  then  a  strip  of  woods  left  standing, 
and  then  a  second  cleared  fire-line  constructed  back  of 


282 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


this  strip  of  timber.  The  theory  is  that  the  trees  on  the 
timbered  strip  will  catch  the  sparks  thrown  beyond  the 
right  of  way.  Any  fire  set  by  these  sparks  on  the  tim- 
bered strip  will  be  stopped  by  the  second  fire-line. 

This  principle  has  been  used  in  a  number  of  instances 
in  this  country.  One  good  example  is  found  in  a  hard- 
wood forest  in  southern  New  York.  A  railroad  runs 
through  the  tract,  along  a  stream  valley.  The  stream 
acts  as  a  fire-line  on  the  low  side  of  the  railroad,  but  the 
opposite  side  is  exposed  to  frequent  fires  resulting  from 
the  sparks  escaping  from  the  locomotives.  A  stretch  of 
several  miles  is  on  a  steep  grade,  and  the  locomotives, 
under  forced  draft,  throw  out  great  showers  of  burning 
cinders,  and  no  spark-arresters  whatever  are  used.  As  a 
protection,  a  fire-line,  varying  in  width  from  8  to  15  feet, 
has  been  constructed  on  a  bench  at  a  distance  of  from  SO 
to  150  feet  from  the  railroad.  The  strip  between  the 
line  and  the  railroad  is  left  untouched.  A  patrolman 
rides  over  the  strip  about  the  time  the  trains  going  up 
grade  pass  by.  Ordinarily  the  small  fires  are  extin- 
guished by  beating.  In  case,  however,  a  number  of 
fires  are  started  by  a  train,  as  often  happens,  one  or  two 
of  them  burn  over  the  strip  to  the  fire-line  before  the 
patrolman  can  reach  them.  The  strip  is  so  narrow,  how- 
ever, that  they  gain  little  headway,  and  are  absolutely 
stopped  by  the  fire-line. 

In  mountainous  country,  fire-lines  arc  located  with 
reference  to  the  topography.  Where  roads  are  used,  or 
fire- lines  are  made  that  are  intended  to  be  used  later  as 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE 


283 


FIG.    59.— A  Mountain  Trail  Built  for  Fire  Patrol. 
Angeles  National  Forest,  California. 


FIG.   60. — Location  of  Fire-Lines  in  the  Angeles 
National  Forest,   California 


284  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

roads,  the  location  is  governed  largely  by  the  principles 
of  road  construction.  Special  fire-lines,  however,  con- 
structed for  protection  alone,  are  built  mainly  on  the 
crest  of  ridges.  (Fig.  60.)  For  example,  the  wide  lines 
in  southern  California,  already  mentioned,  are  on  the  va- 
rious ridges.  A  fire  runs  up  a  slope  very  rapidly  and 
works .  over  a  ridge  slowly.  If  there  is  a  wide,  cleared 
fire-line  on  the  ridge  the  fire  may  be  stopped  entirely  by 
it  alone.  In  the  southern  Appalachians  and  other  moun- 
tains, the  old  mountain  trails  on  the  ridges  may  be  devel- 
oped into  admirable  fire-lines. 

The  question  of  when  and  where  to  construct  special 
fire-lines  must  depend  on  local  conditions,  the  danger 
from  fire,  the  value  of  the  forest,  the  organization  of 
patrol  and  force  available  for  fighting  fire,  the  object 
of  the  owner  in  protecting  the  forest,  and  many  other 
factors.  As  with  other  operations  of  management,  the 
expense  must  be  justified  by  the  results  which  their  con- 
struction is  intended  to  accomplish. 

Artificial  Fire  Obstructions. — It  is  well  known  that 
a  small,  creeping  surface  fire  is  stopped  or  checked  by  a 
stone  wall  or  other  similar  obstruction.  This  principle 
may  be  used  in  fire  protection,  and  other  types  of  fire- 
lines  may  often  be  dispensed  with  where  there  are  such 
obstructions.  A  well-known  railroad  has  been  experi- 
menting with  a  specially  constructed  fire-wall. 

Supervision  and  Patrol. — A  careful  supervision  or 
patrol  during  the  dry  season  is  one  of  the  most  important 
measures  in  organized  forest  protection.  Its  purposes 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  285 

are:  (1)  To  prevent  fires  from  starting;  (2)  to  detect 
fires  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  start;  (3)  to  fight  fires. 

The  mere  fact  that  a  tract  is  carefully  watched  makes 
it  safer,  because  campers,  hunters,  and  others  crossing  it 
are  less  careless  on  that  account.  By  an  efficient  over- 
sight most  of  the  unnecessary  fires  can  be  prevent- 
ed, such  as  those  arising  from  carelessness  in  clearing 
land,  leaving  camp-fires,  and  smoking;  from  improperly 
equipped  sawmills,  locomotives,  donkey  engines,  etc. 

One  of  the  fundamental  principles  in  fire  protection 
is  to  detect  and  attack  fires  in  their  incipiency.  In  an 
un watched  forest  a  fire  may  burn  for  a  long  time  and 
gain  great  headway  before  being  discovered.  In  a  forest 
under  proper  protection  there  is  some  one  man  or  corps 
of  men  responsible  for  detecting  fires  and  for  attacking 
them  before  they  have  time  to  do  much  damage  or  to 
develop  beyond  control. 

AIDS  TO  SUPERVISION  AND  PATROL. — Under  the  head 
of  aids  to  supervision  and  patrol  are  included:  (1)  The 
posting  of  fire  warnings;  (2)  lookout  stations;  (3)  tele- 
phone systems;  (4)  signal  systems. 

The  Posting  of  Fire  Notices. — One  of  the  first  steps  in 
organizing  protection  in  a  forest  is  to  post  it  with  fire 
warnings.  These  notices  emphatically  warn  against  care- 
lessness in  the  use  of  fire,  and  often  give  instructions  how 
to  construct  camp-fires  and  how  to  extinguish  them 
when  breaking  camp.  They  usually  contain  also  the 
prescribed  penalties  for  infringement  of  the  fire-laws. 
Notices  are  posted  at  frequent  intervals  along  roads  and 


286  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

trails,  at  camping  grounds,  near  permanent  camps  and 
settlements,  and  in  many  cases  along  the  boundaries  of 
tracts.  On  private  tracts  the  fire  warning  is  combined 
with  the  trespass  notice. 

In  the  National  Forests  fire-warning  notices  are  print- 
ed in  English,  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  Notices 
printed  in  Italian  are  posted  where  Italians  are  employed 
in  railroad  construction  or  section  work.  Spanish  notices 
are  used  in  New  Mexico,  southern  Arizona,  or  other 
localities  where  there  are  many  Spanish-speaking  people. 
Near  the  northern  boundary  French  notices  are  some- 
times used.  Beyond  question  many  forest  fires  have 
been  prevented  by  these  warnings. 

In  the  case  of  a  forest  owned  by  a  non-resident  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  on  the  notice  the  name  of  the  respon- 
sible local  agent,  as  well  as  the  owner's  name.  This 
lends  emphasis  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  local  man  who 
is  looking  after  the  property. 

Lookout  Stations. — Lookout  stations  include  watch 
towers,  mountain  lookouts,  and  other  elevated  stations 
used  for  overlooking  tracts  and  watching  for  fires.  On 
small  tracts  they  consist  usually  of  some  simple  structure 
which  enables  the  person  responsible  for  the  property  to 
overlook  the  forest  to  see  if  there  are  any  fires,  and,  in 
case  he  sees  smoke,  to  locate  the  fire.  Sometimes  an 
arrangement  on  the  roof  of  the  house  or  barn  serves  as  a 
watch-tower,  or  a  lookout  may  be  built  in  a  tall  tree,  or 
it  may  be  necessary  to  build  a  rough  tower  to  see  over  the 
tree-tops.  In  a  rugged  country  it  is  usually  possible  to 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE 


287 


288  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

find  some  convenient  peak  from  which  a  large  area  can  be 
overlooked. 

In  the  organization  of  large  tracts  in  mountain  regions 
special  lookout  stations  are  sometimes  provided.  These 
are  located  at  high  points  from  which  a  large  area  of  the 
forest  can  be  seen.  A  man  is  kept  constantly  at  each 
station  during  the  dry  season.  The  various  stations 
should  be  in  communication  by  telephone  or  telegraph, 
or  by  some  system  of  signals.  Each  is  provided  with 
range-finders  or  other  equipment,  by  means  of  which  any 
fires  that  may  occur  can  be  precisely  located.  They  are 
also  in  communication  with  the  forest  ranger  or  superin- 
tendent at  headquarters,  so  that  a  force  of  men  may  be 
called  at  once  to  the  fire  and  put  it  out.  In  extensive 
mountain  regions  these  lookout  stations  constitute  an  im- 
portant part  of  organized  fire  supervision.  They  have 
been  successfully  operated  in  the  National  Forests. 

Telephone  System. — One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  ex- 
tensive forest  districts  is  to  secure  the  necessary  help  in 
fighting  fires.  The  telephone  is  the  greatest  aid  in  fire 
patrol.  It  enables  the  man  who  discovers  a  fire  to  call 
for  help  and  to  give  directions  as  to  the  number  of  men 
and  the  equipment  needed.  By  the  use  of  the  telephone 
on  the  National  Forests  millions  of  dollars  have  doubtless 
already  been  saved.  The  Forest  Service  has  since  1905 
built  over  9,000  miles  of  telephone  line,  and  it  is  ex- 
tending the  lines  as  rapidly  as  Congress  furnishes  the 
funds  for  the  work. 

Signal  Systems. — When  there  is  no  telephone  system 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  289 

and  a  regular  lookout  station  is  not  feasible,  a  special  sys- 
tem is  used  for  signaling  for  help  in  fighting  a  fire. 
Some  prominent  peak  is  selected,  from  which,  in  case  of 
fire,  the  location  and  size  of  the  fire  and  the  required  help 
are  signaled  by  a  prearranged  code.  There  are  various 
systems  of  signals  in  use.  The  fire  signal  is  one  of  the 
oldest  methods.  At  a  time  when  the  signals  are  not 
needed  small  piles  of  wood,  brush,  or  other  inflammable 
material  are  gathered  and  placed  in  position  at  about 
equal  distances,  usually  about  50  to  100  feet  apart,  ready 
for  firing  on  short  notice.  The  number  of  fires  burning 
at  the  same  time  conveys  the  information  required. 
Thus,  one  fire  might  mean  that  a  forest  fire  is  burning 
in  a  certain  locality  on  one  side  of  the  mountain;  two,  in 
another  locality;  three,  in  another;  and  so  on. 

Another  system  that  is  sometimes  employed  is  the 
smoke  signal.  This  was  once  very  commonly  used  by 
the  Indians  in  communicating  with  each  other  from  one 
distant  peak  to  another.  A  small  fire  is  built,  and  after 
it  gets  under  good  headway,  damp  moss  or  earth  is  used 
to  deaden  it  and  develop  a  heavy  smoke.  A  blanket  or 
other  covering  is  thrown  over  the  top  of  it  to  smother 
the  smoke  down  for  a  few  moments.  The  blanket  is 
then  raised,  and  a  dense  puff  of  smoke  is  released. 
The  blanket  is  again  thrown  over  the  fire  to  check  the 
smoke  for  a  moment,  then  it  is  again  removed,  and 
another  puff  of  smoke  ascends.  This  system  also  re- 
quires a  prearranged  code.  The  smoke  signal  may  be 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  fire  signal,  by  causing 


290  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

two  or  three  separated  columns  of  smoke  from  dampened 
fires  to  be  steadily  rising  at  the  same  time.  This  system 
of  signaling  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  on  a  still  day 
for  communicating  long  distances.  The  separated  fire 
signal  on  top  of  prominent  peaks  can  be  used  in  the 
night  as  well  as  in  the  day. 

The  heliograph  is  an  instrument  which  may  be  used 
for  flashing  signals  from  the  lookout  stations.  The  For- 
est Service  has  recently  conducted  successful  experiments 
with  this  instrument. 

In  some  cases  it  might  be  possible  to  use  flags  and 
the  code  of  the  Army  Signal  Corps.  Near  settlements 
the  fire  bell,  gong,  or  whistle  is  commonly  used  to  bring 
together  the  men  for  fighting  fires. 

The  organization  of  an  efficient  patrol  varies  under 
the  following  conditions:  (1)  Size  of  tract;  (2)  character 
of  the  forest;  (3)  condition  of  the  forest  with  reference 
to  the  amount  of  inflammable  material;  (4)  difficulties  of 
communication;  (5)  difficulties  of  securing  help  in  fight- 
ing fires;  (6)  the  topography  with  reference  to  the 
amount  of  territory  which  can  be  overlooked;  (7)  special 
sources  of  fire,  such  as  the  presence  of  a  railroad;  (8) 
local  sentiment. 

Supervision  of  Small  Tracts. — The  supervision  of 
a  woodlot  attached  to  a  farm  is  exceedingly  simple.  If 
a  farmer  himself  uses  proper  care  in  starting  fires,  in 
clearing  out  his  roads,  in  disposing  of  brush,  and  in 
keeping  a  careful  watch  for  fires,  his  woodlot  is  com- 
paratively safe.  Many  woodlot  fires  are  caused  by  the 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  291 

owner's  own  carelessness  in  clearing  land,  destroying 
brush,  burning  meadows,  etc.  The  fact  that  the  owner 
is  careful  in  the  matter  of  fires  becomes  known  very 
quickly  in  the  neighborhood,  and  that  fact  in  itself  is 
a  great  protection.  It  is  not  necessary  for  a  farmer  to 
patrol  his  woodlot  at  regular  intervals,  as  would  be 
necessary  in  the  case  of  a  large  tract. 

Many  fires  start  on  the  property  of  non-resident 
owners,  who  themselves  are  unable  to  supervise  it  on  the 
ground.  Non-residents  may  secure  protection  by  an 
arrangement  with  some  farmer  living  near  the  forest. 
The  usual  course  is  to  pay  a  small  retaining  fee  for  gen- 
eral supervision,  with  the  understanding  that  the  farmer 
goes  over  the  tract  every  few  days,  thus  giving  the  im- 
pression of  constant  patrol.  In  case  fire  starts,  the  agent 
has  the  responsibility  of  repairing  to  the  fire  and  putting 
it  out,  and  employing  such  help  as  is  necessary.  There 
is  no  reason  why  this  plan  should  not  provide  adequate 
protection  for  tracts  of  from  100  to  500  acres  at  an  annual 
cost  of  from  3  to  5  cents  an  acre. 

One  of  the  most  essential  measures  in  the  protection 
of  small  tracts  is  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  owners 
of  all  the  neighboring  tracts  in  watching  for  fires  and  in 
mutual  assistance  in  extinguishing  fires,  no  matter  on 
whose  land  they  start. 

Supervision  of  Large  Tracts. — In  the  protection  of 
large  tracts  from  fire  a  special  organization  for  patrol  is 
necessary.  This  organization  can  best  be  combined  with 
that  required  for  the  management  of  the  tract.  In  every 


292  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

forest  that  is  being  developed  there  is  necessary  a  certain 
force  to  supervise  any  work  such  as  logging,  the  con- 
struction of  roads,  the  protection  of  game,  the  prevention 
of  trespass,  etc.  This  organization  is  best  illustrated 
in  the  National  Forests.  There  is  a  permanent  corps  of 
trained  rangers  who  live  on  the  Forest,  each  in  charge  of 
a  specified  area.  These  men  have  executive  charge  of  all 
the  work  in  the  woods.  During  the  dry  season  this 
force  may  be  supplemented  by  temporary  forest  guards 
for  special  fire  patrol.  Each  guard  is  assigned  to  a  speci- 
fied part  of  the  Forest,  which  he  is  required  to  patrol 
regularly;  he  prevents  the  start  of  fires  as  far  as  possible 
and  watches  for  any  fires  which  may  start  within  his 
range.  It  has  already  been  explained  that  one  of  the 
purposes  of  the  construction  of  trails  through  the  Forests 
is  to  enable  the  constant  patrol  and  access  to  fires  which 
may  be  started.  The  guards  ride  or  walk  over  these 
trails  under  a  systematic  plan.  There  is  usually  a  regu- 
lar beat  over  which  the  guard  travels  at  regular  intervals. 
In  some  tracts  it  is  possible  to  go  over  the  beat  once  a 
day;  in  others  it  requires  a  much  longer  period.  When 
not  on  patrol  the  guards  are  engaged  in  other  general 
work  on  the  Forest. 

In  the  plan  of  patrol  the  guards  keep  in  close  touch 
with  each  other  and  with  the  ranger  in  charge  of  the 
whole  work,  in  order  that  they  may  communicate  in  case 
of  fire  by  signal  from  lookout  stations,  by  telephone,  or 
any  other  method  of  communication  that  may  be  estab- 
lished in  the  Forest. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  293 

V.  Most  of  the  National  Forests  of  the  West  are  in 
rugged  mountain  regions,  with  comparatively  few  roads 
and  trails.  The  guards  usually  travel  on  horseback  over 
certain  roads  or  trails,  keeping  track  of  the  people  who 
enter  the  Forest,  and  giving  them  special  warning  regard- 
ing carelessness  with  fire.  In  this  way  each  person  enter- 
ing the  Forest  is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  his  move- 
ments are  watched,  and  the  result  is  that  he  is  more 
careful  with  camp-fires,  smoking,  etc. 

On  large  tracts  patrol  is  concentrated  at  critical  points. 
The  guards  spend  the  most  time  where  there  is  the  great- 
est travel,  frequently  inspecting  camp-grounds,  sawmills, 
and  other  points  where  fires  are  most  likely  to  start. 

In  some  instances  the  actual  patrol  over  trails  is  more 
or  less  dispensed  with,  and  men  are  kept  continuously  at 
lookout  stations,  from  which  a  large  area  can  be  over- 
looked. In  case  of  fire,  signals  are  sent  to  other  lookout 
stations  and  to  headquarters,  with  the  necessary  instruc- 
tions regarding  the  location  of  the  fire,  the  number  of 
men  needed  to  fight  it,  etc. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  specific  rule  regarding  the 
number  of  men  required  to  protect  tracts  of  different 
sizes.  There  is  no  question  that  the  National  Forests 
are  very  much  undermanned.  In  some  cases  a  single 
man  has  the  responsibility  of  protecting  more  than  100,- 
000  acres.  This  area  is  much  too  large  even  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions.  Even  with  proper  facilities 
for  communication,  the  fire  protection  force  on  the 
National  Forests  should  be  quadrupled.  Very  good 


294  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

results  would  be  obtained  if  there  were,  during  the  dry 
season,  one  guard  for  each  15,000  or  20,000  acres.  This 
will  follow  naturally  as  the  increased  receipts  from  the 
Forests  justify  a  more  intensive  management. 

In  flat  regions  more  men  are  required  for  patrol  than 
in  a  rugged  country,  where  large  areas  may  be  overlooked 
from  prominent  elevations.  It  has  been  the  general  view 
that  in  flat  regions  like  the  Lake  States  and  the  plateau 
portions  of  Maine  and  the  Adirondacks  there  should  be 
at  least  one  guard  for  each  10,000  acres. 

The  required  force  of  guards  is  governed  by  the  risk 
of  fire  and  the  value  of  the  property  to  be  protected.  In 
the  case  of  a  forest  of  very  great  value  there  is  necessarily 
a  correspondingly  greater  justification  for  expenditure  in 
fire  protection,  just  as  one  takes  out  fire  insurance  in  pro- 
portion to  the  value  of  his  property.  As  the  value  of 
our  forests  increases,  there  will  be  a  correspondingly 
greater  amount  of  money  spent  on  protection.  This 
principle  is  illustrated  in  Europe,  where  the  forests  are 
very  valuable  and  where  frequently  there  is  one  forest 
guard  for  each  1,000  acres.  (Prussia,  one  for  1,700 
acres;  Baden,  one  for  750  acres.) 

PATROL  ALONG  RAILROADS. — Railroads  in  many  cases 
are  the  most  prolific  source  of  fires.  In  some  sections 
over  50  per  cent,  of  the  fires  are  from  the  sparks  from 
locomotives.  While  most  of  these  fires  could  be  pre- 
vented if  the  railroads  used  proper  appliances  on  the 
locomotives  for  arresting  the  sparks,  nevertheless,  in 
many  cases,  it  is  probably  impossible  to  prevent  sparks 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  295 


FIG.   62.— A  Watch  Tower  in  the  Tusayan  National 
Forest,  Arizona. 


296  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

which  will  start  fires  in  very  dry  weather.  It  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  supplement  the  use  of  spark-arresters 
by  patrolling  the  right  of  way. 

The  most  effective  method  of  patrol  is  to  follow 
every  train  with  a  speeder  equipped  with  mattocks, 
shovels,  pails,  and  other  necessary  equipment  for  fight- 
ing fires.  A  fire  started  by  a  spark  from  a  locomotive 
may  then  be  put  out  before  it  has  an  opportunity  to  gain 
any  considerable  headway  or  to  do  much  damage. 

It  is  not  always  practicable  to  follow  every  train  over 
a  long  distance,  and  it  may  happen  that  there  is  danger 
from  the  sparks  only  at  steep  grades.  In  that  event  the 
patrol  is  concentrated  at  the  dangerous  points. 

The  plan  of  following  every  train  by  patrolmen  may 
be  practicable  where  the  distance  traversed  by  the  road  is 
not  great,  but  it  would  not  be  feasible  for  a  great  mileage. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  problem  of  patrol  is  being  con- 
sidered by  certain  large  railroads  with  the  view  of  apply- 
ing it  over  the  entire  system,  wherever  there  is  danger 
from  fires.  The  purpose  is  to  save  the  annual  expense 
of  fire  damages.  One  system  in  the  Northeast,  cov- 
ering not  over  2,000  miles,  is  said  to  have  an  annual 
expense  of  over  $50,000  for  forest-fire  claims.  It  is 
probable  that  the  most  practical  method  of  supervision  of 
the  right  of  way  would  be  through  the  organization  of 
the  section  men,  with  a  special  patrol  at  certain  grades 
where  the  danger  from  fires  is  particularly  great.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  section  men,  if  provided  with  proper 
speeders  and  other  equipment,  should  not  be  trained  to 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  297 

repair  at  once  to  fires  which  may  start  along  the  right  of 
way  and  put  them  out,  with  a  comparatively  small  loss  of 
time. 

In  Minnesota  the  law  requires  that  railroad  companies 
must  put  on  patrolmen  to  patrol  their  tracks.  The  forest 
commissioner  may  compel  the  companies  to  put  on  as 
many  as  one  man  to  each  mile  of  track. 

The  Methods  of  Fighting  Fires 
The  principles  of  fighting  forest  fires  are  essentially 
the  same  as  those  recognized  in  fighting  fires  in  cities. 
The  following  are  of  first  importance:  (1)  Quick  arrival 
at  the  fire;  (2)  an  adequate  force;  (3)  proper  equipment; 
(4)  a  thorough  organization  of  the  fighting  crew,  and  (5) 
skill  in  attacking  and  fighting  fires. 

Quick  Access  to  Fires. — Quick  access  to  fires  is  ac- 
complished through  the  work  of  supervision  and  patrol 
in  discovering  fires  before  they  have  gained  much  head- 
way, and  by  a  well-developed  system  of  communication 
through  the  forest  by  roads  and  trails. 

An  Adequate  Force  of  Fighters. — A  small  fire  may 
be  put  out  by  one  man,  but  in  extensive  forests  several 
hours  may  pass  before  the  fire  can  be  reached.  It  is  im- 
portant to  secure  an  adequate  force  of  men  and  to  get 
them  to  the  fire  quickly.  In  a  well-organized  system  of 
patrol  the  guard  who  discovers  a  fire  communicates 
quickly  to  other  guards  and  to  headquarters  by  telephone, 
signal,  or  other  means,  and  indicates  the  number  of  men 
he  needs.  It  is  essential  that  there  be  definite  arrange- 


298  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

inents  for  securing  a  force  of  men  in  case  of  fire.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  cooperation  with  lumber  or  saw- 
mill operators  who  employ  forces  of  men,  and  through 
cooperation  with  local  residents,  or,  in  case  of  small 
tracts,  through  the  cooperation  of  neighboring  owners, 
each  of  whom  agrees  to  assist  his  neighbor  in  case  of 
fires.  In  some  States  there  is  a  system  of  fire  wardens. 
In  case  of  fire,  the  fire  warden  may  call  upon  residents  to 
assist  in  extinguishing  it.  They  are  required  by  law  to 
repair  to  the  fire  in  case  of  call,  and  there  is  a  small  statu- 
tory compensation  for  services.  In  case  of  extensive 
forests  cooperative  arrangements  should  be  made  with 
every  resident  within  the  forest  and  with  every  user  of  the 
forest  to  assist  in  fighting  fires.  In  most  cases  where 
lumbering  is  going  on  the  men  who  are  employed  in  the 
logging  operations,  at  sawmills,  in  road  construction, 
etc.,  will  furnish  a  large  force  on  occasion.  Through 
an  efficient  system  of  cooperation  it  is  possible  to  secure 
quickly  a  large  force  of  fighters,  and  through  this  same 
system  all  the  residents  soon  take  an  active  interest  in 
preventing  fires  from  starting. 

The  cooperative  fire  protective  associations  in  the 
Northwest,  following  the  example  of  the  Forest  Service, 
have  organized  systems  of  patrol  and  are  doing  highly 
important  work  in  suppressing  forest  fires  in  the  white 
pine  regions  of  Idaho  and  Montana,  and  the  fir  forests  of 
Washington.  These  associations  now  include  practically 
all  of  the  large  timber  owners  in  the  Northwest,  and 
many  small  owners  as  well.  The  expense  of  maintaining 


PROTECTION    OF   FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  299 

a  patrol  during  the  dry  season,  of  fighting  fires,  and  of 
building  trails  and  telephone  lines  to  assist  in  fire  fight- 
ing, is  apportioned  among  the  members  of  the  association 
on  an  acreage  basis. 

Proper  Equipment  for  Fighting  Fires. — Just  as  in  a 
city  the  efficiency  of  a  fire  service  depends  in  large  part 
on  the  equipment,  so  also  in  forest  work  it  is  essential 
that  fire  fighters  be  furnished  with  the  proper  tools  and 
other  equipment.  The  implements  needed  for  fighting 
fires  differ  under  different  conditions.  Wherever  dirt 
can  be  used  the  men  should  be  provided  with  long-han- 
dled shovels.  If  water  is  available,  buckets  should  be 
provided,  and,  where  possible,  bucket  pumps.  Under 
most  conditions  it  is  desirable  to  have  mattocks  and  iron 
rakes,  and  there  should  always  be  axes  to  aid  in  clearing 
brush  or  cutting  through  down  timber  and  old  tops. 

These  implements  should  be  kept  in  a  convenient 
place  for  use  in  fighting  fires.  Proper  organization  for 
fire  protection  includes  an  adequate  equipment  for  the 
fire-fighting  force.  No  matter  how  numerous  or  skilled 
the  crew,  the  men  are  helpless  without  proper  imple- 
ments. In  the  protection  of  woodlots  in  settled  regions 
every  farmer  who  repairs  to  a  fire  usually  takes  his  own 
shovel,  rake,  ax,  or  other  implement.  In  the  more  re- 
mote forests  under  organized  protection,  the  implements 
are  usually  provided  by  the  ranger.  A  very  good  plan 
is  to  have  caches  at  convenient  points  on  the  trails  or  at 
the  lookout  stations,  containing  fire-fighting  tools.  In 
some  cases  in  the  mountain  regions  tools  are  kept  in  a 


300  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

special  pack  outfit  ready  to  be  thrown  upon  horses  and 
taken  at  once  to  the  fire.  Such  special  outfits  usually 
include  shovels,  collapsible  pails,  axes,  mattocks,  ropes, 
and  in  some  cases  fire-extinguishers,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  provisions  to  enable  fire  fighters  to  camp  out  over- 
night if  necessary.  Where  there  are  good  roads,  as  in  the 
woodlot  regions,  special  fire  wagons  have  been  used  to 
advantage.  These  consist  of  an  ordinary  wagon  of  the 
Concord  type,  furnished  with  a  complete  equipment  of 
tools,  bucket-pumps,  fire-extinguishers,  water-tanks,  or 
barrels,  etc.  The  author  has  used  on  his  own  tract  in 
Pennsylvania  a  crude  fire  wagon  consisting  of  a  two- 
seated  buckboard  provided  with  a  special  galvanized-iron 
water-tank  with  a  capacity  of  about  1  ]/2  barrels.  The 
wagon  is  also  equipped  with  two  fire-extinguishers,  two 
bucket-pumps,  one-half  dozen  buckets,  shovels,  rakes, 
axes,  and  such  other  tools  as  are  needed  in  fighting  fires. 

Organization  of  the  Fighting  Crew. — It  is  important 
that  there  be  in  charge  of  the  fighting  crew  some  one 
in  authority  to  thoroughly  organize  the  work.  A  small 
crew,  well  organized,  can  do  much  more  effective  work 
than  a  loosely  organized  large  crew.  One  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  fire-warden  system  adopted  in  a  number  of 
States  is  that  the  warden  has  authority  not  only  to  impress 
men  to  fight  fire  but  to  direct  their  work. 

The  efficiency  of  the  fire-fighting  crew  depends  very 
largely  on  their  skill  and  experience,  and  particularly  on 
the  skill  and  experience  of  the  man  directing  the  work. 
It  is  not  only  a  question  of  knowledge  of  how  to  assign 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  301 

each  man  where  his  work  will  be  most  effective,  but 
judgment  must  be  exercised  in  determining  the  general 
method  of  attack.  The  character  of  the  fire,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  forest,  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
strength  and  direction  of  the  wind,  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  fire  is  running,  and  many  other  points  have  to 
be  taken  into  consideration. 

Methods  of  Fighting  Surface  Fires. — Small  surface 
fires  may  often  be  beaten  out.  This  is  possible  when  the 
fire  is  burning  chiefly  in  a  dry  leaf  litter  or  short  grass. 
Where  there  are  tops  or  piles  of  dry  brush,  or  the  fire  is 
burning  through  thick  brush  or  undergrowth,  beating  is 
very  difficult. 

There  are  various  devices  for  beating.  A  blanket, 
coat,  or  riding  slicker  is  often  used.  A  gunny-sack  or 
piece  of  canvas  is  a  good  implement  for  beating,  particu- 
larly if  it  can  be  wet  from  time  to  time.  A  handful  of 
green  brush  serves  also  very  well  for  a  beating  device.  In 
beating  out  a  fire,  one  strikes  the  fire  with  a  sideways 
sweep,  driving  the  flames  and  burning  material  back 
upon  the  burned  ground.  A  direct  stroke  scatters  the  fire. 

The  best  way  to  extinguish  running  surface  fires  is  to 
throw  sand  upon  the  flames.  This  method  is,  of  course, 
practicable  only  when  the  soil  is  fairly  clear  of  rocks  and 
loose  enough  for  ready  digging.  In  the  plains  of  the 
Atlantic  Coast,  for  example,  the  sand  is  so  loose  that  it 
can  be  dug  up  and  thrown  on  a  fire  almost  anywhere. 
The  fighting  crews  are  equipped  with  long-handled 
shovels,  and  the  sand  is  thrown  along  the  line  of  fire. 


302  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

When  the  fire  is  running  in  the  open  woods,  in  pine 
needles,  a  single  shovelful  of  sand,  properly  thrown,  will 
extinguish  over  10  feet  of  fire. 

Loose  loam  is  also  very  good,  but  not  so  effective  as 
sand.  Heavy  soil  which  clods  is  difficult  to  manipu- 
late. Frequently  sand  or  loose  loam  can  be  dug  up  in 
spots,  but  it  is  too  stony  to  secure  it  all  along  the  line  of 
fire.  The  fighters  must  then  supplement  the  use  of  sand 
or  earth  with  beating  or  other  methods. 

Where,  on  account  of  the  accumulated  debris,  the 
flames  are  intermittently  too  severe  for  beating,  water  is 
used  if  available.  Water  usually  has  to  be  brought  from 
some  distance;  it  must  therefore  be  used  very  economi- 
cally. The  best  way  is  to  deaden  the  flames  by  a  little 
water,  and  then  beat  them  out  with  a  gunny-sack  or  other 
device.  Experience  has  shown  that  water  may  be  most 
effectively  applied  by  a  hand-spray  pump.  This  pump 
throws  a  stream  20  or  30  feet  and  makes  it  possible  to 
apply  the  water  exactly  where  it  is  most  needed.  The 
pump  can  be  purchased  at  prices  varying  from  $3  to 
$4.50.  They  are  extensively  used  by  farmers  in  the 
Northeast.  Collapsible  pails  are  excellent  for  carrying 
water,  because  of  their  lightness  and  compactness.  Or- 
dinary metal  water  pails  are  commonly  used  by  farmers, 
and  are  much  cheaper  than  collapsible  pails. 

When  water  must  be  brought  over  mountain  trails 
special  water  sacks  are  used,  which  can  be  slung  on  a 
pack  saddle.  Water  kegs,  adapted  to  pack  horses,  have 
been  tried  in  Pennsylvania.  Where  there  are  passable 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  303 

roads  water  is  hauled  in  barrels  or  in  specially  constructed 
tanks. 

Patent  fire-extinguishers  have  also  been  used  in  fight- 
ing fires.  These  throw  a  stream  of  water  from  IS  to  20 
feet.  The  stream  is  chemically  charged,  so  that  it  is 
very  effective  in  putting  out  flames  which  would  be  little 
affected  by  ordinary  water.  In  practise  a  crew  is  pro- 
vided with  several  extinguishers,  a  supply  of  water,  and 
extra  chemical  charges.  As  soon  as  an  extinguisher  is 
emptied  it  is  reloaded,  so  that  there  may  be  a  continuous 
play  along  the  line  of  fire.  In  case  of  an  ordinary  fire 
running  through  grass  or  leaf  litter,  one  extinguisher  will 
put  out  200  feet  of  flame. 

A  very  good  method  in  fighting  running  surface 
fires,  where  there  is  not  much  slash,  is  to  make  a  narrow 
trace  in  front  of  the  fire  by  raking  to  one  side  the  leaves 
and  other  litter.  As  soon  as  the  fire  reaches  the  trace  it 
is  checked  and  readily  beaten  out.  Sometimes,  on  level 
land  and  in  open  woods,  a  furrow  is  plowed  as  an  emer- 
gency fire-line.  (Fig.  56.)  This  same  principle  may  be 
used  to  check  fires  burning  through  young  growth  and 
brush,  where  it  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  flames.  A 
narrow  lane  is  cut  through  the  brush  ahead  of  the  fire. 
This  gives  a  space  where  the  crew  can  work  without  hin- 
drance. As  soon  as  the  fire  approaches,  it  is  attacked  by 
all  the  crew  with  the  various  fighting  devices  with  which 
they  may  be  provided. 

Sometimes  the  front  of  the  fire  is  so  fierce  that  it  is 
impossible  to  meet  it  directly.  One  method  under  such 


304 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 


circumstances  is  to  direct  the  course  of  the  fire.  The 
attack  is  made  on  the  sides  near  the  front,  separating  the 
forward  portion  of  the  fire  from  the  main  wings.  A  part 
of  the  crew  attacks  the  forward  part  and  others  run  down 


FIG.   63. — Fighting  a  Ground  Fire  by  Trenching. 

and  extinguish  the  wings.  The  front  of  the  fire,  attacked 
from  the  sides,  is  forced  gradually  and  constantly  into  a 
narrower  path.  Usually  the  front  can  be  directed  toward 
some  cleared  space,  road,  pond,  stream,  swamp,  or  fire- 
line,  when  it  will  be  checked  enough  to  admit  of  a  direct 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  303 

front  attack.  Sometimes,  by  this  plan,  the  front  may  be 
rapidly  narrowed  by  working  from  the  sides,  until  it  is  at 
last  entirely  extinguished.  The  plan  of  giving  direction 
to  the  course  of  the  fire  has  often  been  successfully  carried 
out  when  the  fighting  crew  is  too  small  for  a  direct  attack. 

Methods  of  Fighting  Ground  Fires. — Ground  fires, 
burning  in  the  deep  layer  of  organic  matter,  are  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  extinguish.  If  the  layer  of  vegetable 
matter  is  not  very  deep,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  put 
out  the  flames  by  water  or  sand.  If  the  layer  is  deep, 
trenching  is  the  only  practical  method  of  stopping  the 
progress  of  the  fire.  In  using  this  method  of  fighting 
ground  fires,  one  judges  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fire 
is  burning  and  then,  at  a  proper  distance  away,  digs  a 
trench  through  the  vegetable  layer  down  to  the  mineral 
soil,  using  axes,  mattocks,  and  shovels,  as  the  particular 
case  may  require.  Such  a  trench,  which  has  a  width  at 
the  bottom  of  1  foot,  will  enable  the  fighters  to  stop  an 
ordinary  ground  fire,  especially  if  the  work  can  be  sup- 
plemented by  the  use  of  water  or  sand  at  the  trench. 

Methods  of  Fighting  Crown  Fires. — Crown  fires  are 
always  accompanied  by  surface  fires.  Crown  fires  stop 
when  there  are  no  longer  inflammable  crowns  through 
which  the  fire  will  run,  or  when  there  is  no  longer  any 
material  on  the  ground  to  carry  the  surface  fire.  An 
ordinary  crown  fire  will  jump  a  wide  fire-line,  and  many 
fires  have  been  known  to  cross  wide  rivers,  almost  with- 
out check.  In  the  mountains,  a  crown  fire  running  up  a 
slope  is  almost  impossible  to  check. 


306  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

Back-Firing. — On  level  ground  it  is  possible  to 
stop  crown  fires  by  back-firing,  when  the  conditions  are 
such  as  to  make  back-firing  possible  at  all.  Thus  in  the 
pine  forests  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  crown  fires  are  frequently 
checked  by  back-firing.  The  back-fire  burns  off  the  sur- 
face material,  and  thus  in  itself  acts  as  a  check  to  the 
crown  fire,  and,  if  the  area  burned  by  the  back-fire  is 
large  enough,  will  stop  it  in  this  way.  At  other  times, 
when  the  back-fire  has  been  successfully  started  and  is 
well  under  way,  eating  back  against  the  wind,  it  is  caught 
by  the  hot  volume  of  air  generated  by  the  heat  of  the 
crown  fire.  The  flames  are  then  turned  quickly  toward 
the  crown  fire,  and  the  meeting  of  the  two  lines  of  flame 
stops  the  advance  of  the  fire. 

When  fires  gain  such  headway  that  it  is  impossible  to 
stop  them  by  direct  attack,  no  matter  how  numerous  and 
efficient  the  crew  or  complete  the  equipment  for  fighting, 
back-firing  becomes  the  only  means  of  stopping  the  fire. 
It  should,  however,  be  used  only  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  One  of  the  commonest  mistakes  in  fighting 
fires  is  to  overestimate  the  rapidity  of  the  fire  and  the 
difficulty  of  putting  it  out.  A  forest  fire  is  always  a 
frightening  spectacle,  particularly  if  it  is  sweeping  in  the 
direction  of  one's  own  property.  Men  often  become 
excited  and  start  back-fires  when  it  is  entirely  unneces- 
sary. Back-firing  necessarily  involves  deliberately  burn- 
ing over  property.  When  this  belongs  to  another  person 
and  one's  own  forest  seems  to  be  in  danger,  there  is  a 
great  temptation  to  sacrifice  it. 


PROTECTION    OF    FORESTS    FROM    FIRE  307 

A  second  principle  in  back-firing  is  to  burn  over  as 
small  an  area  as  possible.  The  counter-fires  are,  there- 
fore, set  only  as  far  ahead  of  the  fire  as  is  necessary  to 
make  them  effective.  Very  often,  however,  there  is  only 
one  point  from  which  a  back-fire  can  safely  be  started,  so 
that  the  fighters  have  no  choice. 

If  it  is  found  that  a  back-fire  is  necessary,  a  favorable 
point  is  selected  directly  in  front  of  the  fire,  from  which 
to  set  the  new  fire.  This  must  be  a  point  where  it  is 
safe  to  start  a  back-fire,  such  as  a  road,  fire-line,  stream, 
or  swamp.  The  leaves  are  ignited  at  points  5  feet  to  a 
rod  apart  for  a  distance  not  greater  than  the  estimated 
width  of  the  head  of  the  fire.  These  small  fires  gradually 
meet  and  form  a  continuous  line,  eating  back  against 
the  wind. 

A  part  of  the  crew  is  stationed  across  the  road,  or 
other  break  from  which  the  back-fire  is  started,  and  put 
out  at  once  the  small  fires  which  may  result  from  the 
sparks  blown  over  from  the  back-fire. 

The  meeting  of  the  two  fires  stops  at  once  the  head 
of  the  main  fire.  It  is  usually  possible  then  to  attack 
the  wings  with  the  ordinary  methods  of  fighting.  It  is 
necessary  to  attack  the  wings  at  once,  particularly  if  there 
is  a  strong  wind,  for  otherwise  each  wing  of  the  old  fire 
would  soon  form  an  independent  fire  with  a  well-devel- 
oped head.  It  is  necessary,  also,  that  a  number  of  men 
be  stationed  where  the  original  fire  and  the  back-fire  meet 
in  order  to  extinguish  smouldering  fires  in  tops,  logs, 
and  other  debris. 


308          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

Patrol  After  a  Fire  is  Extinguished. — A  fire  is  never 
out  until  the  last  spark  is  extinguished.  Often  a  log  or 
snag  will  smolder  unnoticed  after  the  flames  have  appar- 
ently been  conquered,  only  to  break  out  afresh  with  a 
rising  wind.  After  the  fire-fighting  crew  has  left  the 
ground  it  is  always  well  to  assign  at  least  one  man  to 
patrol  the  edges  of  the  burned  area  until  it  is  certain  that 
the  fire  is  entirely  out.  This  may  not  be  for  several 
days. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PROTECTION   FROM   OTHER   INJURIOUS   AGENCIES 

Protection  from  Insects 

NEXT  to  fire  the  greatest  damage  to  forests  is  done  by 
insects.  Sometimes  the  depredation  by  insects  manifests 
itself  in  a  wide-spread  invasion  in  which  a  large  percent- 
age of  the  most  valuable  trees  are  killed  over  hundreds  of 
square  miles.  Such  outbreaks  have  unquestionably  oc- 
curred from  time  immemorial.  It  is  probable  that  in 
some  cases  insects  are  responsible  for  the  practical  destruc- 
tion of  whole  forests.  In  recent  years  there  have  been 
numerous  great  invasions  in  different  forest  regions  of 
the  country,  causing  damage  to  the  extent  of  millions  of 
dollars.  More  often  the  work  of  insects  is  less  conspicu- 
ous, and  for  this  reason  the  importance  of  protecting 
forests  from  this  source  of  damage  has  not  been  fully  ap- 
preciated by  the  public,  nor  even  by  practising  foresters. 
There  are  at  all  times  throughout  every  forest  hordes  of 
insects  at  work  on  the  trees.  Some  of  these  are  relatively 
harmless,  but  there  are  nearly  always  some  injurious 
species  at  work.  It  is  very  common  to  find  trees  dying 
here  and  there,  individually  or  in  groups,  as  a  result  of 
the  work  of  insects.  The  aggregate  loss  from  these  scat- 
tered injuries  is  enormous. 

309 


310  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

The  subject  of  forest  entomology  is,  therefore,  of 
great  importance  in  the  practical  handling  of  woodlands. 
It  is  just  as  essential  to  protect  the  forests  from  in- 
sect invasions  as  from  fire.  The  protective  measures 
which  must  be  used  depend  entirely  upon  the  nature 
of  the  attack,  and  hence  upon  the  species  of  insect  doing 
the  work.  It  is  necessary  to  understand  the  life  history 
of  the  different  insects  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
work  under  different  conditions,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
prescribe  measures  for  their  control.  The  list  of  in- 
jurious insects  is  very  large,  and  it  would  be  entirely 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  to  include  an  adequate  de- 
scription even  of  the  more  important  genera.  This  in- 
formation must  be  obtained  from  special  works  on  forest 
insects.  The  purpose  here  is  to  call  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  subject  and  to  explain  some  of  the  general 
principles  of  the  problem.  Information  regarding  insects 
attacking  the  forests  of  the  United  States  may  be  obtained 
from  the  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  especially  the 
works  of  Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  who  has  taken  the  lead  in 
developing  Forest  Entomology  in  this  country. 

Death  of  Trees. — The  most  extensive  damage  is  done 
by  bark-beetles,  which  burrow  in  the  inner  bark  of  the 
trunk  and  girdle  the  trees.  Coniferous  forests  in  partic- 
ular suffer  from  the  attacks  of  various  bark-beetles.  It 
is  very  common  in  the  coniferous  forests  to  see  here  and 
there  trees  or  groups  of  trees  turning  red  and  dying.  A 
close  examination  usually  reveals  small  perforations  in 


PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER   AGENCIES  311 

the  bark,  numerous  pitch  tubes,  and  fine  boring-dust  at 
the  base  of  the  tree,  all  of  them  indications  of  the  work 
of  bark-beetles. 

It  was  a  species  of  bark-beetle  that  caused  the  so- 
called  spruce  blight  which  has  appeared  in  the  red  spruce 
forests  of  the  Northeast  from  time  to  time  during  the  last 
century,  and  which  in  certain  sections  caused  the  death 
of  most  of  the  mature  spruce.  It  was  another  species  of 
bark-beetle  which  has  been  devastating  the  forests  of  the 
Black  Hills  in  South  Dakota. 

Still  another  species  of  bark-beetle  destroys  annually 
an  untold  number  of  trees  in  the  pine  forests  of  the 
Southeast.  To-day  this  insect  constitutes  one  of  the 
greatest  menaces  of  the  pine  timber  of  the  South,  unless 
provision  is  made  to  prevent  the  development  of  an  in- 
vasion. 

One  of  the  most  serious  present  outbreaks  is  located 
in  eastern  Oregon  in  the  Wallowa  and  Whitman  National 
Forests.  Previous  to  1903  only  a  few  isolated  areas  of 
less  than  a  section  each  were  infested.  There  was  no 
check  to  the  spread  of  the  insects,  and  in  1910  the  inva- 
sion has  spread  over  about  one  million  acres,  having 
already  killed  35  per  cent  of  the  lodge-pole  pine  in 
addition  to  a  large  amount  of  yellow  pine.  Unless  the 
invasion  is  checked  the  damage  will  amount  to  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  dollars. 

Extensive  injury  is  also  done  by  defoliating  insects. 
When  a  tree  is  defoliated  only  once,  it  is  not  necessarily 
killed.  If  it  is  thrifty,  it  may  produce  leaves  again  the 


312  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

following  year.  It  is,  however,  weakened,  and  continued 
defoliations  will  ultimately  kill  it.  The  most  conspic- 
uous example  of  an  invasion  of  defoliating  insects  is  the 
present  outbreak  of  the  gipsy  and  brown  tail  moths  in 
New  England.  Extensive  wood-lots  have  been  entirely 
killed.  The  States,  the  Government,  and  the  various 
communities  are  spending  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dol- 
lars to  check  the  depredations. 

Another  illustration  of  the  damage  by  defoliating 
insects  is  seen  in  the  outbreak  of  the  larch-worm,  which 
has  occurred  in  the  Northeastern  States  within  recent  years. 
In  many  sections  50  to  100  per  cent,  of  the  mature  larch 
has  been  killed  by  repeated  defoliations  of  the  trees. 

Injury  to  Trees. — Certain  classes  of  insects  attack  the 
wood  of  living  trees,  but  do  not  kill  them.  These  in- 
sects bore  into  the  interior  of  the  trees  and  seriously 
affect  the  value  of  the  lumber  cut  from  them,  often  ren- 
dering it  useless. 

The  damage  done  by  the  chestnut  timber  worm  is  well 
known.  In  some  sections  practically  every  mature  chest- 
nut is  more  or  less  affected.  Dr.  Hopkins  estimates  that 
the  reduction  in  value  of  the  lumber  of  chestnut  amounts 
to  about  30  per  cent  on  account  of  the  attacks  of  this  in- 
sect. 

The  locust  suffers  so  constantly  from  the  attacks  of 
the  locust  borer  that  foresters  hesitate  to  propagate  the 
tree  at  all.  Another  example  of  damage  by  borers  is 
seen  in  the  defects  of  white  and  rock  oak,  beech,  yellow 
poplar,  and  other  hardwoods,  resulting  from  the  work  of 


PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER   AGENCIES  313 

one  of  the  ambrosia  beetles.  The  injury  in  reducing  the 
value  of  the  lumber  may  amount  in  many  localities  to 
from  25  to  75  per  cent. 

Another  class  of  injury  is  seen  in  the  work  of  the 
white  pine  weevil.  This  insect  repeatedly  attacks  the 
leading  shoots  of  young  white  pine,  causing  a  distorted 
growth.  The  trees  develop  a  crooked  stem,  and  their 
value  is  consequently  very  much  reduced. 

Dying  and  dead  trees  are  especially  subject  to  attacks 
by  insects.  The  loss  caused  by  them  is  principally  in 
the  reduction  in  value  of  the  product  of  the  trees.  In 
some  cases  insects  attack  and  kill  trees  weakened  by  fire 
or  some  other  cause,  which  otherwise  might  have  recov- 
ered and  lived. 

There  is  a  very  close  relation  between  forest  fires  and 
damage  by  insects.  It  is  believed  that  in  some  cases 
when  the  past  destruction  of  forests  has  been  attributed 
to  fire,  it  has  been  primarily  the  work  of  insects.  The 
timber  was  first  killed  by  the  insects.  The  dead  trees 
furnished  fuel  for  the  later  fires,  which  also  killed  all 
young  growth  and  retarded  reproduction.  The  presence 
of  the  dead  trees  which  had  been  killed  by  insects,  always 
increases  the  menace  from  fire,  not  only  by  the  added 
amount  of  inflammable  material,  but  also  because  of  the 
chance  of  their  being  struck  by  lightning  and  starting  a 
forest  fire. 

When  a  forest  has  been  burned,  the  final  death  of  the 
trees  is  often  due  to  attacks  by  insects.  The  presence  of 
fire-scorched  trees  may  cause  a  rapid  multiplication  of 


314          THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    HANDLING   WOODLANDS 

insects  injurious  to  trees.  Ordinarily  the  effect  is  to  ex- 
tend an  invasion  rather  than  to  be  the  primary  cause  of 
an  outbreak. 

There  is  also  a  close  relation  between  insects  and 
fungous  diseases  affecting  trees.  The  burrows  in  the 
bark  and  wood  often  afford  entrance  for  the  fungi,  and 
hasten  the  decay  of  the  tree.  Then,  too,  trees  weakened 
by  disease  may  be  attacked  the  more  readily  by  certain 
insects. 

Injury  to  Reproduction. — Insects  affect  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  forest  chiefly  by  attacking  seed.  Undoubt- 
edly natural  reproduction  is  often  retarded  because  a 
large  proportion  of  the  seed  is  destroyed  by  insects. 
Young  seedlings  are  also  subject  to  attack  by  certain  in- 
sects. 

Control  of  Insects. — In  the  systematic  control  of  for- 
est insects,  provision  must  be  made,  first,  for  prevention 
of  a  possible  outbreak,  and,  second,  for  attacking  an  in- 
vasion. 

The  principles  are  comparable  to  those  used  in  fight- 
ing fires.  In  fire  protection  the  first  aim  is  to  reduce  the 
causes  of  fires  and  to  prevent  them  from  being  started. 
In  the  same  way  in  insect  control,  it  is  essential  to  pre- 
vent the  multiplication  of  insects  to  a  point  where  an  in- 
vasion may  be  developed.  If  there  is  an  invasion,  then 
very  drastic  measures  must  be  used  to  stamp  it  out,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  a  dangerous  forest  fire. 

The  "enemies  of  insects  are  very  numerous.  Birds, 
parasitic  insects,  parasitic  fungi,  and  unfavorable  seasons 


PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER   AGENCIES  315 

are  constantly  contributing  to  check  the  multiplication  of 
insects.  Very  frequently,  however,  there  is  a  combina- 
tion of  favorable  conditions  resulting  in  the  rapid  devel- 
opment of  a  given  species  of  insect  to  a  point  where  the 
natural  enemies  can  no  longer  keep  them  in  check,  and 
an  invasion  is  the  result. 

In  preventive  control  work,  it  is  necessary  to  watch 
the  forest  constantly  for  any  indications  of  the  spread  of  an 
injurious  insect  which  may  cause  an  invasion.  Where 
the  markets  for  wood  and  timber  permit  intensive  silvi- 
culture, all  trees  found  to  be  infested  are  promptly  re- 
moved. The  forest  is  kept  clear  of  logs,  tops,  and  other 
slashings,  not  only  to  reduce  the  danger  from  fire,  but 
also  to  remove  breeding-places  for  insects.  In  this  way 
the  loss  by  desultory  attacks  of  insects  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  the  chance  for  an  outbreak  is  eliminated. 

Unfortunately  the  conditions  in  most  of  our  forests 
do  not  permit  intensive  forest  management.  In  the  ex- 
tensive forests  where  forestry  has  not  advanced  much  be- 
yond the  stage  of  mere  protection,  the  first  aim  is  not  to 
attempt  to  prevent  the  entire  loss  caused  by  death  of  an 
occasional  tree  or  group  of  trees,  but  to  prevent  a  damag- 
ing invasion.  Even  under  our  present  conditions  it  is 
entirely  practicable  to  prevent  large  outbreaks  of  insects. 
It  is  necessary  to  keep  careful  watch  of  the  forest  for  any 
general  large  development  of  insect  work.  As  soon  as  it 
is  apparent  that  there  is  danger  of  an  invasion,  it  is 
necessary  to  apply  immediately  remedial  measures,  even 
if  it  is  necessary  to  incur  considerable  expense. 


316  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

In  attacking  an  insect  invasion  the  attempt  is  not 
made  to  destroy  all  the  insects.  That  would  be  im- 
practicable, and  fortunately  it  is  not  necessary.  A  destruc- 
tion of  a  part  of  the  insects  checks  their  further  multi- 
plication, scatters  the  energy  of  the  invasion,  and  subjects 
the  remainder  to  check  by  their  natural  enemies.  Often- 
times it  is  necessary  to  destroy  only  SO  to  75  per  cent  of 
the  broods. 

The  most  serious  problem  of  insect  control  is  in  the 
great  coniferous  forests  of  the  South  and  the  West,  where 
there  is  almost  constantly  a  certain  amount  of  damage  by 
some  species  of  bark  beetle.  As  soon  as  there  is  danger 
of  an  invasion  immediate  steps  should  be  taken  to  de- 
stroy enough  of  the  insects  to  check  their  further  multi- 
plication. If  there  is  a  market  for  the  timber,  the  trees 
containing  the  broods  may  be  cut  and  removed  with  lit- 
tle or  no  extra  expense.  Frequently,  however,  the  dep- 
redations occur  in  the  remote  forests,  where  there  is  no 
market  for  the  timber,  or  only  the  largest  and  best  trees 
can  be  sold.  Under  such  circumstances  the  work  of 
control  must  be  largely  an  investment  representing  in- 
surance, just  as  in  the  case  of  expending  money  to  fight 
dangerous  forest  fires. 

One  method  of  destroying  insects  is  to  cut  the  trees 
down  and  destroy  the  bark  on  the  main  trunk.  Another 
method  is  to  peel  the  bark  from  the  body  of  standing 
trees  to  a  height  of  about  20  to  30  feet.  If  the  work  is 
done  at  the  right  season  of  the  year  it  is  necessary  only 
to  remove  the  bark,  without  burning  it.  This  method 


PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER   AGENCIES  317 

was  used  in  the  attempt  to  control  the  invasion  of  the 
bark-beetle  in  the  Black  Hills.  Special  tools  were  de- 
veloped for  removing  the  bark  of  standing  trees.  Where 
the  trees  cannot  be  utilized,  the  design  is  to  cut  or  peel 
only  such  trees  as  are  absolutely  necessary  to  check  the 
spread  of  the  insects.  Ordinarily  it  is  necessary  under  such 
conditions  to  employ  an  expert,  who  is  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  habits  of  the  beetle,  to  select  the  trees, 
in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  economy  in  the 
work. 

In  the  case  of  some  insects,  control  work  is  conducted 
by  the  use  of  so-called  trap-trees.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
insects  which  breed  in  fallen  logs,  tops,  stumps,  etc., 
trees  may  be  felled  here  and  there  as  traps.  The  insects 
are  attracted  to  them  as  breeding-places.  At  the  right 
season  of  the  year  the  bark  is  removed  and  the  broods 
destroyed. 

Other  measures  are  used  in  the  case  of  certain  defo- 
liating insects.  At  the  present  time  drastic  measures  are 
being  used  to  suppress  the  outbreak  of  gipsy  and  brown- 
tail  moths  in  the  Northeast.  Various  measures  are  used, 
including  the  destruction  of  egg  masses  where  these  can 
be  reached,  the  wrapping  of  trees  with  burlap  or  tangle- 
toot,  and  wholesale  spraying  with  high-power  spraying 
machines.  This  work  is  expensive,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  protect  property  which  will  inevitably  be  destroyed 
unless  the  insects  are  checked. 

The  above  illustrations  show  the  general  character  of 
the  work  required  in  controlling  an  insect  invasion.  They 


318  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

serve  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  preventing  an  inva- 
sion from  starting.  Careful  preventive  measures  save 
not  only  the  loss  of  timber  resulting  from  the  work  of  in- 
sects, but  also  the  expense  of  fighting  an  invasion. 

Protection  from  Fungous  Diseases 
The  protection  of  trees  from  attacks  of  parasitic 
fungi  is  of  great  importance  in  forestry.  The  most  seri- 
ous defects  in  timber  are  caused  by  fungi.  Every  woods- 
man is  familiar  with  certain  external  indications  of  such 
defects,  and  is  often  able  to  distinguish  trees  which  con- 
tain so  large  a  proportion  of  unsound  lumber  as  to  render 
them  unprofitable  to  cut.  There  is,  however,  an  im- 
mense amount  of  hidden  defect,  resulting  directly  from 
fungous  attacks.  Fungous  diseases  enormously  reduce 
the  value  of  timber  and  the  profits  of  lumbering.  They 
contribute  directly  to  the  death  of  trees,  sometimes  work- 
ing slowly,  as  in  the  case  of  those  which  attack  the  interior 
of  the  tree,  and  sometimes  rapidly,  as  is  illustrated  by  the 
chestnut-bark  disease  which  may  kill  the  trees  within  a 
few  years  after  the  first  infection. 

Fungous  diseases  are  spread  by  minute  spores  which 
are  carried  by  the  wind,  and  which  gain  access  to  trees 
through  wounds.  The  wood  is  readily  reached  through 
fire  scars,  broken  branches  and  tops,  bruises,  borings 
made  by  insects,  etc.  The  rapid  spread  of  injurious 
fungi  is  illustrated  in  many  mature  forests.  Southern 
lumbermen  appreciate  the  damage  done  by  the  so-called 
red  rot,  which  in  some  localities  affects  the  majority  of 


PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER   AGENCIES  319 

the  mature  trees.  There  are  many  instances  in  the  West- 
ern forests  where  nearly  all  trees  of  a  given  species  are 
affected  by  disease,  including  not  only  the  old  but  the 
middle-sized  trees  as  well.  An  illustration  is  the  hem- 
lock in  certain  localities  in  northern  Idaho. 

It  is  one  of  the  aims  of  forestry  to  maintain  a  forest 
in  healthy  condition,  in  order  that  the  trees  maybe  sound 
when  ready  for  the  market.  In  a  forest  under  intensive 
management  diseased  trees  are  promptly  removed  as  soon 
as  their  condition  is  discovered.  In  this  way  the  spread 
of  disease  is  checked.  In  operating  virgin  forests  it  is 
essential  to  make  the  first  cuttings  in  those  portions  on 
which  the  trees  are  past  maturity  and  are  rapidly  suc- 
cumbing to  disease. 

The  study  of  the  diseases  affecting  American  trees  is 
in  its  infancy.  It  is  of  increasing  importance  to  deter- 
mine the  facts  regarding  the  habits  of  different  fungi,  in 
order  to  develop  practical  measures  to  protect  our  forests 
from  their  injurious  effects. 

Protection  Against  Other  Agencies 
Trees  suffer  damage  from  various  other  agencies. 
Mention  has  already  been  made,  in  the  discussion  of  the 
silvicultural  systems,  of  damage  by  windfall.  While  this 
cannot  be  altogether  prevented,  it  can  be  very  largely 
reduced  through  the  proper  location  of  cuttings  and  the 
application  of  careful  silviculture. 

In  addition  to  the  sources  of  injury  already  men- 
tioned, trees  are  injured  by  certain  animals,  by  ice,  snow. 


320          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HANDLING    WOODLANDS 

and  hail-storms,  by  inundation  by  water,  by  exposure  to 
acid  fumes  from  smelters,  etc.  For  a  full  discussion  of 
these  various  injuries  and  the  methods  of  protection  from 
them,  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  on  forest 
protection,  of  which  Dr.  Schlich's  "Manual  of  Forestry," 
Volume  IV,  is  recommended. 


INDEX 


Accretion  cutting,  202,  209,  216 
Adirondacks,   12,   17,  44,   75,  76, 

94,  233,  261,  294 
Advance  growth,  112,    135,    161, 

165,  182,  190 
Age  class,  28 
Alder,  European,  188 
Alternate  cleared  strips,  123 
Ambrosia  beetles,  313 
Angeles  National  Forest,  283 
Annual  burning  of  litter,  265 
Arapahoe    National    Forest,    51, 

66,  73 

Area  of  original  forests,  1 
Arizona,  254,  295 
Artificial    reproduction,    88,    89, 

98,  103,   126,   135,   158,  175 
Ash,  170 

Ash,  European,  188,  218 
Aspen,  243 
Associations,  fire  protective,  27, 

225,  298 
Atmosphere,     influence    of,     on 

fires,  230 
Austria,  33,  160 

Back-firing,  268,  305 
Bark-beetles,  310,  316 
Basswood,  170 
Beating  out  fires,  282,  301 
Beech,  80,  312 

European,  33,    98,    136,    159, 

188,  191,  218 

Big  Horn  National  Forest,  139 
Bigtree,  239 
Birch,  80,  170,  227,  243 

European,  168 
Black  Hills,    122,   147,   160,   222, 

311,  317 
Blocks  of    trees,    reserved,    36, 

103,    127 

Broad-cast  burning,  202,  275 
Brown-tail  moth,  312,  317 


Brush,  disposal  of,  246 

piling,  248,  249,  251,  254,  275 
Brush  fire,  231 
Bucket-pumps,  300 
Burning  brush,  249,  251,  255,  259, 
275 

Cabinet  National  Forest,  287 

California,  4,  272,  274,  279,  283 

Cedar,  western  red,   23,    86,   92, 

102,  106 
white,  134 

Chaparral,  232,  272,  273,  279 

Cherry,  243 

Chestnut,  170,  177,  183,  312 

Choice  of  species,  40 

Classification  of  trees,  27 

Cleanings,  190,  220 

Clear-cutting,  conditions  requir- 
ing, 83 

disadvantages  of,  86 
in  strips,  36,  37,  97,  130 
in  patches,  36,  37,  97,  135 
systems,  36,  83,  101 
the  whole  stand,  36,  95,   101 
use  in  this  country,  90 
with  artificial  reproduction, 

36 

with    natural    reproduction, 
36,  89,  98 

Coconino  National  Forest,  254 

Co-dominant  trees,   defined,   29, 
30 

Colorado,  51,  66,  73 

Composite  forest,  30,  32 

Composition  of  stand,  9 

Connecticut,  10 

Coppice,  forms,  30,  32 
simple,  38,  170 
with  standards,  32,  38,   184, 
185 

Cornell  tract,  forestry  on,  94 

Cost  of  silviculture,  18,  24 


321 


322 


INDEX 


Crown  class,  28,  29,  201 
Crown  fires,  226,  233 
Crown -ratio,  207 
Cutting  cycle,  47 
Cutting  series,  133,  164 

Damage  cuttings,  190,  220,  222 
Deer  Lodge  National  Forest,  117, 

130 

Defoliating  insects,  311 
Density,  of  stand,  10 
maintenance  of,  174 
reduced  by  fire,  240 
Diameter  limit,  53 
application  of,  56 
determination  of,  53,  77 
example  of,  80 
Diseases  of  trees,   112,  220,  240, 

314,  318 

Disposal  of  slash,  246 
Distribution   of  seed,    101,    103, 
106,  110,  120,  123,  129,  138, 
157,  163 

Dominant  trees,  defined,  29,  30 
Drought,    protection    from,    87, 

120,  125,  137,  139,  158,  163, 
199,  262 

Elm,  European,  188 

Erosion,  87,  125,  241 

Europe,  35,  39,    70,   97,  98,   109, 

121,  130,  136,  151,  158,  166, 
172,  175,  176,  185,  191,  208, 
217,  273,  280 

Even -aged  form,  31 
Exhaustion  of  supplies,  3,  22 

Final  cutting,  141,  145,  150,  153, 

165 

Financial  returns,  19 
Fir,  balsam,  66 

Douglas,  23,  86,  92,  103,  106, 
116,  121,  125,  237,  239,  298 
European,  136,  165,  168 
white,  103,  106 
Fires,  causes  of,  245 
classification  of,  226 
damage  by,  3,   171,  220,  235, 

238,  243 
equipment  for  fighting,  299, 

300,  303 

life  history  of,  227,  229,  230, 
235 


Fires,  methods  of  fighting,  297, 
301,  305 

prevention  of,  244 

protection  from,  225 

rapidity  of,  230,  231,  233,  234 
Fire-head,  234 
Fire- lines,  246 

fully-cleared,  272,  274 

ground-cleared,  280 

location  of,  281,  282 

maintenance  of,  277 

special,  271 

tree-cleared,  278 

width  of,  277 
Fire,  notices,  285 

obstructions,  284 

patrol,  244,  246,  284,  290,  291, 
294 

protective    associations,    27, 
225,  298 

trace,  275 

First  cutting,  144,  149 
Flury,  Dr.,  210 
Forestry,  defined,  6 
Form  of  stand,  30 
France,  210,  273 
French  method  of  thinning,  210 
Front  of  a  fire,  226,  234 
Frost,  87,  113,  120,  137,  139,  158, 

262 
Fungi,  314,  318 

Germany,  26,  33,  130,    141,   201, 

208,  273 
Germination  of  seed,    108,    113, 

124,  159 

Gipsy  moth,  312,  317 
Girdling  hardwoods,  67 
Grass  fires,  231 
Ground  fires,  275 
Groups,  of  seed-trees,   reserved, 

36,  116 
shelterwood  cuttings  in,  37, 

164 
Growth,  12 

Hardwoods,  95,  96,  114,  116,  170, 

178,  183,  191,  213,  312 
brush  disposal,  528 
thinnings  in,  213 
Hemlock,  Eastern,   80,    103,   106, 

251 

Western,  23,  86,  92,  102,  106, 
319 


INDEX 


323 


Hickory,  170,  177,  181,  183 
High  forest,  30,  31 
Holding-over  reserves,  177 
Hornbeam,    European,    168,    188, 
218 

Idaho,  27,  52,  105,  106,  298,  319 
Improvement  cuttings,  27,  64,  189 
India,  273 
Injuries  to  trees,  by  fire,  238 

insects,  310 
Insects,  damage  by,    3,    87,   125, 

199,  220,  238,  239,  240,  246, 

309 

control  of,  314 
enemies  of,  314 
invasions  of,  309 
Intensive  forestry,  15,  69,  87,  166 
Intermediate    trees   defined,    29, 

30 

Intolerant  species,  63 
Investments  in  forestry,  22,  24, 

104,  108 

Irregular  cleared  strips,  128 
Irregular  form  of  stand,  31 
Irregular    stands,     improvement 

of,  219 

Kaniksu  National  Forest,  105 

Larch,  Eastern,  312 
European,  168,  212 
Western,  103,  106,  237 

Liberation  cuttings,  190,  194 

Lightning,  245,  313 

Limitation  of  cut,  48 

Linden,  218 

Location  of  seed-trees.  63 

Locust,  170,  312 

Logging  conditions,  influence  of, 
129,  140' 

Lookout  stations,  246,  286 

Lopping  brush,  260,  263 

Maine,  5,  54,  294 

Maple,  80,  116,  170,  177,  227 

European,  188,  218 
March  of  forest  destruction,  2 
Market  conditions,  influence  of, 

40,  41,  65,  78,  100,  140 
Marking,  57 

axe,  58 

cost  of,  59 
Maryland,  197 


Massachusetts,  115,  213 
Maximum  of  production,  12 
Mayr,  Heinrich,  208 
Measure  of  production,  12 
Minimum  of  production,  13 
Minnesota,  effect  of  fire  in,  11 
Minnesota  National   Forest,   39, 

109,  114 
Missoula    National    Forest,    55, 

248,  259 
Mixed  stands,  advantages  of,  43 

defined,  42 
Montana,  55,  103,   117,  130,  248, 

259,  287,  298 

National  Forests,  15,  54,  90,  225, 
255,  261,  270,  286,  288,  292 

Natural  pruning,  198 

Natural  reproduction,  88,  89,  98, 
100,  103,  126,  129,  181 

New  Hampshire,  115,  205 

New  Jersey,  134,  170 

New  York,  17,  74,  85,  170,  282 

North  Carolina,  222 

Oak,  116,  170,  177,  181,  183,  227, 

312 
European,  98,   168,  172,  175, 

188 

Oregon,  23 
Original  forests,  1 
Overwood,  187,  218 
Owner,  purpose  of,  15 

Patches,  clear-cutting  in,  36,  37, 

97,  135 
Patrol,  fire,   244,   246,   284,    290, 

294,  308 

Pennsylvania,  8,  20,  193,  270,  302 
Period  of  reproduction,  140,  146, 

150,  164,  166,  184 
Piling  brush,  249,  251,  254,  275 
Pine,  loblolly,  116,  121,  197 

lodgepole,  85,   117,  139,  229, 

237,  311 
longleaf,   116,   121,   142,  228, 

239,  242,  265,  280,  311 
pitch,  227 

Scotch,  168,  206,  218 
shortleaf,  222 
sugar,  239 

western  yellow,  92,  93,  116, 
121,  147,  160,  167,  311 


324 


INDEX 


Pine,  white,  26,   81,  94,  114,  121, 

191,  205,  207,  223,  227,  237, 

251,  261 
western  white,  103,  106,  237, 

239,  298 
Planting,  87,  89,  93,  95,  97,  98, 

103,  135,  159,  175 
Polewood  coppice,  38,  178,  180 
Preparation  of  soil,  112,  128,  159 
Preparatory  cuttings,    153,    163, 

181 

Primary  cuttings,  165 
Private  forestry,  18,  20,  25 
Progressive  cleared  strips,  133 
Protection,  from  fire,  225 
from  insects,  309 
of  young  growth,    68,    112, 

146,  150,  161,  174,  183 
Pruning,  223 
Public  forestry,  15,  20 
Pure  stands,  denned,  42 

Railroad  fires,  245,  281,  294 

Red  pine,  237,  251 

Reduction  of  supplies,  3 

Redwood,  4 

Regular  form  of  forest,  31 

Removal  cuttings,   151,  153,  161, 

163,  165,  184 
Reproduction,  cuttings,  27,  181 

by  sprouts,  179 

effect  of  fire  on,  242 

effect  of  insects  on,  314 

method  of,  87 
Reserves  in  coppice,  177 
Reserving,  blocks  of  seed-trees, 
36,  103,  105 

groups  of  seed -trees,  36,  116, 
117 

scattered  seed-trees,  36,  107 

thrifty  standards,  36,  118 
Returns  from  public  forests,  20 
Rigid  diameter  limit,  defects  of, 

60 
Roads,  use  of,  in  fire  protection, 

244,  246,  268,  269 
Rotation,  defined,  18 

Scattered    seed -trees,     reserved, 

36,  107,  109 
results  from,  113 
second  cutting,  126,  132,  145, 

150,  152,  184 
system  applied,  114 


Second    growth,    116,    179,    206, 
261,  270 

secondary  cutting,  165 
Seed,  destruction  of,  63,  314 

distribution  of,  103,  104,  110, 
120,  123,  124,  125,  129 

germination  of  113,  124 
Seed -cutting,   141,   144,  147,  153, 

156,  163,  165,  181 
Seeding,  87,  89 
Seed-trees,  63,  108 

character  of,  111 

cost  of,  114 

location  of,  108 

left  in  groups,  116 

number  of,  120 

selection  of,  81 
Selection,  form,  31 

stands,  improvement  of,  219 
Selection  system,  35 

choice  of,  72 

cost  of,  67 

illustrated,  51,  55 

intensive  development  of,  69 

limitation  of  cut  in,  48 

origin  of,  44 

practical  application  of,  74 

results  of,  71 

theory  of,  45 

Shelter-wood  system,  37,  137,  139, 
148,  160,  167,  181,  195,  217 

advantages  of,  139 

disadvantages  of,  140 

cuttings  in  groups,  37,  164 

cuttings  in  strips,  37,  162 

cuttings,  uniform,  37,  153 

intensive  application  of,  152 

primitive  application  of,  139, 
141 

progressive  development  of, 
150 

results  of,  146 
Signal  systems,  288 
Silvicultural  systems,  application 
of,  39    " 

classification  of,  34 

combination  of,  38 

defined,  32 
Silviculture,  cost  of,  18,  24 

defined,  7 

investments  in,  18,  24 

objects  of,  8 

Simple  coppice,  38,  170,  171 
Site,  204 


INDEX 


325 


Size  class,  28 

Slash  disposal,  246,  247,  249 
Soil,  drying  of,  87,  113,  120,  125, 
138 

injury  by  fire,  240 

preparation  of,  112,  128 

protection  of,  138,  218,  262 
South  Dakota,  3,  122,  148,    160, 

222,  311 

Spark  arresters,  245,  246 
Sprout  forest,  30 
Spruce,  Engelmann,  51,  66 

European,  33,   136,   153,  159, 
165,  168,  191,  210 

red,  74,  85,  95,  103,  261,  263, 

311 
Stand,  defined,  30 

form  of,  30 

origin  of,  30 
Standards,  coppice  with,  184,  185 

number  of,  120 

reserving  thrifty,  118 

selection  of,  119 
State  forestry,  15,  20,  27,  93,  245, 

298 

Stream  flow,  disturbance  of,  5 
Strips,  alternate  cleared,  123 

clear  cutting  in,  36,  37,  97 

irregular  cleared,  128 

location  of,  123,  129 

progressive,  132 

shelterwood  cuttings  in,  37, 
162 

width  of,  124,  164 
Suppressed  trees,  defined,  29,  30 
Surface  fire,  226,  236 

Telephone  lines,  use  of,    in  fire 

protection,  246,  288 
Thinnings,  190,  196 

grade  of,  202 

need  of,  198 

practical  application  of,  212 


Thinnings,  repetition  of,  208 

results  of,  200 

theory  of,  201 

time  to  begin,  204 
Tolerant  species,  63 
Towers,  watch,  286,  295 
Trace,  fire,  275 
Trails,  use  of,  in  fire  protection, 

244,  246,  269 
Trap-trees,  317 
Trench,  275 
Tulip-tree,  170,  312 
Tusayan  National  Forest,  295 
Two-storied  form,  31 
Two-storied  system,  166,  217 


Underplanting,  168,  218 
Under-story,  168 
Underwood,  188,  218 
Uniform    shelterwood    cuttings, 

37,    153 

Unregulated  cutting,  results  of,  5 
Upper-story,  168 

Value  of  stand,  10 
Virgin  forest,  50 


Wallowa  National  Forest,  311 
Washington,  16,   27,   84,    86,  91, 

298 

Watch  towers,  286,  295 
Weevil,  white  pine,  313 
Whitman  National  Forest,  311 
Willow,  171,  172 
Windfall,  56,  64,  81,  85,  104,  118, 

126,  128,  132,  140,  155,  163, 

204,  216,  319 
Wings  of  a  fire,  226,   232,   304, 

307 

Woodlot,  96,  206,  270 
Wyoming,  3,  139 


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